Tuesday, February 09, 2010
Monday, February 08, 2010
Crome Yellow by Aldous Huxley
Crome Yellow, published in 1921 was Aldous Huxley's first novel. In it he satirizes the fads and fashions of the time. It is the witty story of a house party at "Crome" where there is a gathering of bright young things. We hear some of the history of the house from Henry Wimbush, its owner and self appointed historian; Apocylapse is prophesied, virginity is lost, and inspirational aphorisms are gained in a trance. Our hero, Denis, tries to capture it all in poetry and is disappointed in love.
The author, Aldous Huxley, was born in 1894 and began writing poetry and short stories in his early twenties; this was his first novel and established his literary reputation. (Summary by Martin Clifton)
Friday, February 05, 2010
Tuesday, February 02, 2010
Monday, February 01, 2010
Jeet Kune Do
Jeet Kune Do (Chinese: 截拳道 Cantonese: Jitkyùndou lit. "Way of the Intercepting Fist," also "Jeet Kun Do","JKD," or "Jeet Kune Do") is a hybrid fighting system and life philosophy founded by Bruce Lee in 1967 with direct, non classical, and straight forward movements. Jeet Kune Do is primarily an open hand system. The system works on the use of different 'tools' for different situations. These situations are broken down into ranges (Kicking, Punching, Trapping, & Grappling), with techniques flowing smoothly between them. Also, it is referred to as a "style without style". Unlike more traditional martial arts, Jeet Kune Do is not fixed or patterned, and is a philosophy with guiding thoughts.
In 2004, the Bruce Lee Foundation decided to use the name Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do (振藩截拳道) to refer to the martial arts system that Lee founded. "Jun Fan" was Lee's Chinese given name, so the literal translation is "Bruce Lee's Way of the Intercepting Fist."
Contents [hide]
1 System and philosophy
1.1 Lee's philosophy
1.2 Modern Jeet Kune Do philosophy
2 Principles
2.1 Be like water
2.2 Economy of motion
2.3 Learn the 4 ranges of combat
2.4 Five Ways Of Attack
2.5 Three Parts of JKD
2.6 Centerline
2.7 Combat Realism
2.8 Absorbing What Is Useful
3 Branches
4 Bruce Lee
4.1 Quotes
5 References
6 See also
7 External links
[edit] System and philosophy
[edit] Lee's philosophy
Jeet Kune Do (JKD) is the name Bruce Lee gave to his combat system and philosophy in 1967. Originally, when Lee began researching various fighting styles, he gave his martial art his own name of Jun Fan Gung Fu. However not wanting to create another style that would share the limitations that all styles have, he instead gave us the process that created it.
Bruce Lee said:
I have not invented a "new style," composite, modified or otherwise that is set within distinct form as apart from "this" method or "that" method. On the contrary, I hope to free my followers from clinging to styles, patterns, or molds. Remember that Jeet Kune Do is merely a name used, a mirror in which to see "ourselves". . . Jeet Kune Do is not an organized institution that one can be a member of. Either you understand or you don't, and that is that. There is no mystery about my style. My movements are simple, direct and non-classical. The extraordinary part of it lies in its simplicity. Every movement in Jeet Kune-Do is being so of itself. There is nothing artificial about it. I always believe that the easy way is the right way. Jeet Kune-Do is simply the direct expression of one's feelings with the minimum of movements and energy. The closer to the true way of Kung Fu, the less wastage of expression there is. Finally, a Jeet Kune Do man who says Jeet Kune Do is exclusively Jeet Kune Do is simply not with it. He is still hung up on his self-closing resistance, in this case anchored down to reactionary pattern, and naturally is still bound by another modified pattern and can move within its limits. He has not digested the simple fact that truth exists outside all molds; pattern and awareness is never exclusive. Again let me remind you Jeet Kune Do is just a name used, a boat to get one across, and once across it is to be discarded and not to be carried on one's back.
– Bruce Lee[2]
[edit] Modern Jeet Kune Do philosophy
JKD as it survives today — if one wants to view it "refined" as a product, not a process — is what was left at the time of Bruce Lee's death. It is the result of the life-long martial arts development process Lee went through. Bruce Lee stated that his concept is not an "adding to" of more and more things on top of each other to form a system, but rather, a winnowing out. The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee's philosophy of "casting off what is useless". He also used the sculptor's mentality of beginning with a lump of clay and hacking away at the "unessentials"; the end result was what he considered to be the bare combat essentials, or JKD.
The core concepts of JKD are derived from Wing Chun. This includes such ideas as centerline control, vertical punching, trapping, and forward pressure. Through his personal research and readings, Lee also incorporated ideas from boxing and fencing. Later during the development of Jeet Kune Do, he would expand to include the art for personal development, not just to become a better fighter. To illustrate Lee's views, in a 1971 Black Belt Magazine article, Lee said "Let it be understood once and for all that I have NOT invented a new style, composite or modification. I have in no way set Jeet Kune Do within a distinct form governed by laws that distinguish it from 'this' style or 'that' method. On the contrary, I hope to free my comrades from bondage to styles, patterns and doctrines."
One of the theories of JKD is that a fighter should do whatever is necessary to defend himself, regardless of where the techniques come from. One of Lee's goals in Jeet Kune Do was to break down what he claimed were limiting factors in traditional martial arts training, and seek a fighting thesis which he believed could only be found within the reality of a fight. Jeet Kune Do is currently seen as the genesis of the modern state of hybrid martial arts.
Jeet Kune Do not only advocates the combination of aspects of different styles, it also can change many of those aspects that it adopts to suit the abilities of the practitioner. Additionally, JKD advocates that any practitioner be allowed to interpret techniques for themselves, and change them for their own purposes. For example, Lee almost always chose to put his power hand in the "lead," with his weaker hand back, within this stance he used elements of Boxing, Fencing and Wing Chun. Just like fencing, he labeled this position the "On Guard" position. Lee incorporated this position into his JKD as he felt it provided the best overall mobility. He felt that the dominant or strongest hand should be in the lead because it would perform a greater percentage of the work. Lee minimized the use of other stances except when circumstances warranted such actions. Although the On-Guard position is a good overall stance, it is by no means the only one. He acknowledged that there were times when other positions should be utilized.
Lee felt the dynamic property of JKD was what enabled its practitioners to adapt to the constant changes and fluctuations of live combat. He believed that these decisions should be done within the context of "real combat" and/or "all out sparring" and that it was only in this environment that a person could actually deem a technique worthy of adoption.
Bruce Lee did not stress the memorization of solo training forms or "Kata", as most traditional styles do in their beginning-level training. He often compared doing forms without an opponent to attempting to learn to swim on dry land. Lee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic. Circumstances in a fight change from millisecond to millisecond, and thus pre-arranged patterns and techniques are not adequate in dealing with such a changing situation. As an anecdote to this thinking, Lee once wrote an epitaph which read: 'In memory of a once fluid man, crammed and distorted by the classical mess.' The "classical mess" in this instance was what Lee thought of classical martial arts.
Bruce Lee's comments and methods were seen as controversial by many in his time, and still are today. Many teachers from traditional schools disagreed with his opinions on these issues.
The notion of cross-training in Jeet Kune Do is similar to the practice of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) in modern times — Bruce Lee has been considered by UFC president Dana White as the "father of mixed martial arts".[3] Many consider Jeet Kune Do to be the precursor of MMA because of its syncretic nature. This is particularly the case with respect to the JKD "Combat Ranges". A JKD student is expected to learn various combat systems within each combat range, and thus to be effective in all of them, just as in MMA.
[edit] Principles
[4] The following are principles that Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do. He felt these were universal combat truths that were self evident and would lead to combat success if followed. The "4 Combat Ranges" in particular are what he felt were instrumental in becoming a "total" martial artist. This is also the principle most related to mixed martial arts.
JKD practitioners also subscribe to the notion that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of "Intercepting". Lee believed that in order for an opponent to attack someone they had to move towards them. This provided an opportunity to "intercept" that attack or movement. The principle of interception covers more than just intercepting physical attacks. Lee believed that many non-verbals and telegraphs (subtle movements that an opponent is unaware of) could be perceived or "intercepted" and thus be used to one's advantage. The "5 Ways of Attack" are attacking categories that help Jeet Kune Do practitioners organize their fighting repertoire and comprise the offensive portion of JKD. The concepts of Stop hits & stop kicks and simultaneous parrying & punching were borrowed from European Fencing and Wing Chun's theory of simultaneous defending and attacking, and comprise the defensive portion of JKD. These concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee. These concepts also complement the other principle of interception.
[edit] Be like water
Lee believed that martial systems should be as flexible as possible. He often used water as an analogy for describing why flexibility is a desired trait in martial arts. Water is infinitely flexible. It can be seen through, and yet at other times it can obscure things from sight. It can split and go around things, rejoining on the other side, or it can crash through things. It can erode the hardest rocks by gently lapping away at them or it can flow past the tiniest pebble. Lee believed that a martial system should have these attributes. JKD students reject traditional systems of training, fighting styles and the Confucian pedagogy used in traditional kung fu schools because of this lack of flexibility. JKD is claimed to be a dynamic concept that is forever changing, thus being extremely flexible. "Absorb what is useful; Disregard that which is useless" is an often quoted Bruce Lee maxim. JKD students are encouraged to study every form of combat possible. This is believed to expand one's knowledge of other fighting systems; to both add to one's arsenal as well as to know how to defend against such tactics.
[edit] Economy of motion
JKD students are told to waste no time or movement. When it comes to combat JKD practitioners believe the simplest things work best. Economy of motion is the principle by which JKD practitioners achieve "efficiency" describe in the three parts of JKD. Utilizing this principle conserves both energy and time. Energy and time are two crucial components in a physical confrontation that often leads to success if employed efficiently. In combat situations maximizing one's energy is beneficial in maintaining physical activity. Likewise minimizing the time to execute techniques because of traveling less distance is beneficial in that the opponent has less time to react.
Stop hits & stop kicks
This means intercepting an opponent's attack with an attack of your own instead of a simple block. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy is a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts, as well as an essential component of European épée fencing (known in fencing terminology as the "counter-attack"). Stop hits & kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement thus minimizing the "time" element.
Simultaneous parrying & punching
When confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected and a counter attack is delivered at the same time. Not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counter attacking in sequence. This is also practiced by some Chinese martial arts. Simultaneous parrying & punching utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into two movements thus minimizing the "time" element and maximizing the "energy" element. Efficiency is gained by utilizing a parry rather then a block. By definition a "block" stops an attack whereas a parry merely re-directs an attack. Redirection has two advantages: It requires less energy to execute. It utilizes the opponents energy against them by creating an imbalance. Efficiency is also gained in that the opponent has less time to react to the nullification of their attack while having to worry about defending an incoming attack.
No high kicks
JKD practitioners believe they should target their kicks to their opponent's shins, knees, thighs, and mid section. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is "written in stone". If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage of the situation without feeling hampered by this principle. Maintaining low kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by reducing the distance a kick must travel thus minimizing the "time" element. Low kicks are also more difficult to detect and thus guard against.
[edit] Learn the 4 ranges of combat
Kicking
Punching
Trapping
Grappling
Jeet Kune Do students train in each of these ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Bruce Lee's theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of Mixed Martial Arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historical note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range.[5] These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms although there may still be others who prefer the three categories.
[edit] Five Ways Of Attack
[6]
Single Angle Attack (SAA) and its converse Single Direct Attack (SDA).
Hand Immobilization Attack (HIA) and its counterpart Foot Immobilization attack, which make use of trapping to limit the opponent's function with that appendage.
Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA). Attacking one part of the opponent's body followed by attacking another part as a means of creating an opening.
Attack By Combinations (ABC). This is using multiple rapid attacks, with volume of attack as a means of overcoming the opponent.
Attack By Drawing (ABD). This is creating an opening with positioning as a means of counter attacking.
[edit] Three Parts of JKD
JKD practitioners believe that techniques should contain the following properties:
Efficiency - An attack that reaches its mark
Directness - Doing what comes naturally in a learned way.
Simplicity - Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.
[edit] Centerline
The centerline refers to an imaginary line running down the center of one's body. The theory is to exploit, control and dominate your opponent's centerline. All attacks, defenses and footwork are designed to preserve your own centerline and open your opponent's. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from Wing Chun. This notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess.
The three guidelines for centerline are:
The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.
Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent's.
Control the centerline by occupying it.
[edit] Combat Realism
One of the premises that Bruce Lee incorporated in Jeet Kune do was "combat realism". He insisted that martial arts techniques should be incorporated based upon its effectiveness in real combat situations. This would differentiate JKD from other systems where there was an emphasis on "flowery technique" as Lee would put it. Lee claimed that flashy "flowery techniques" would arguably "look good" but where often times not practical or prove ineffective in street survival and self-defense situations. This premise would also differentiate JKD from other "sport" oriented martial arts systems that where geared towards "tournament" or "point systems". Lee felt that these systems where "artificial" and fooled its practitioners into a false sense of true martial skill. Lee felt that because these systems favored a "sports" approach they incorporated too may rule sets that would ultimately handicap a practitioner in self defense situations. He also felt that this approach to martial arts became a "game of tag" which would lead to bad habits such as pulling punches and other attacks; this would again lead to disastrous consequences in real world situations. Because of this perspective Lee utilized safety gear from various other contact sports to allow him to spar with opponents "full out". This approach to training allowed practitioners to come as close as possible to real combat situations with a high degree of safety. Donn Draeger world renown martial arts pioneer was the first Westerner to bring widespread attention to the often cited “-do” versus “-jutsu” controversy. Historically the "do" or way arts where based on the "jutsu" or technique arts without what was deemed "dangerous techniques". The "do" arts such as Judo where thus seen as a "water downed" version of their 'jutsu" counterparts such as Ju-Jutsu a combat tested martial art; and thus considered a sport. Lee objected to these "sport" versions of martial arts because of this emphasis on combat realism.
[edit] Absorbing What Is Useful
This is perhaps the least understood and most confusing principle in Jeet Kune Do. This principle does not mean choosing, collecting, compiling, or assembling the best techniques from various diverse styles and slapping them together to form a new style. To do so is to miss the point of Jeet Kune Do. Absorbing what is useful is about immersing oneself in style or system and learning and grasping its essence. It is only through a holistic approach that one learns techniques in their proper context. Styles provide more than just mere techniques; they offer training methods, theories, and mental attitudes to name a few. Learning all of these factors allows a student to experience a system (in what Lee would call) its "totality". It is only through its totality that one can "absorb what is useful". Applying what is learned in real combat training situations is what allows the student to figure what works or doesn't work for oneself. It is at this point that one can "discard that which is useless". The critical point of this principle is that the choice of what to keep is based on personal experimentation with various opponents over time. It is not based on how a technique may look or feel or how well one can execute it. In the final analysis if the technique is not beneficial in combat it is discarded. Lee believed that only the individual could come to understand what worked for oneself based on critical self analysis and by "honestly expressing oneself; without lying to oneself".
[edit] Branches
Although Bruce Lee officially closed his martial arts schools two years before his death, he allowed his curriculum to be taught privately. Since his death, Jeet Kune Do is argued to have split into different groups. Allegedly they are:
The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch, whose proponents include Taky Kimura, James Lee, Jerry Poteet, and Ted Wong; these groups claim to teach what was believed to be only what was taught by Bruce Lee, and encourage the student to further develop his or her abilities through those teachings. The inherent training principles of this branch are shaped by the static concept of what was "originally taught", just as the training systems of "traditional" martial arts have been taught for centuries and become recognizable as "styles", except it is referred to as a philosophy of "style without style".
The JKD Concepts branch, whose proponents include Dan Inosanto, Richard Bustillo, Larry Hartsell; these groups strive to continue the philosophy of individual self-expression through re-interpretation of combat systems through the lens of Jeet Kune Do, under the concept that it was never meant to be a static art but rather an ongoing evolution, and have incorporated elements from many other martial arts into the main fold of its teachings (most notably, grappling and Kali / Escrima material) based on the individual's personal preferences and physical attributes. The entire JKD "system" can be described through a simple diagram, and the concepts can then be applied to a variety of contexts in a "universal" way.
To understand the branches of JKD it is important to understand the difference between the two "types" or viewpoints of Jeet Kune Do:
JKD framework This type of JKD provides the guiding principles. Bruce Lee experimented with many styles and techniques to reach these conclusions. To Lee these principles were truisms. The JKD framework is not bound or confined by any styles or systems. This type of JKD is a process.
JKD Personal Systems This type of JKD utilizes the JKD framework along with any techniques from any other style or system to construct a "personal system". This approach utilizes a "building blocks" manner in which to construct a personalized system that is especially tailored to an individual. Lee believed that only an individual could determine for themselves what the usefulness of any technique should be. This type of JKD is thus a product.
Lee believed that this freedom of adoption was a distinguishing property from traditional martial arts.
There are many who confuse the JKD Framework with a JKD Personal System (IE. Bruce Lee's personal JKD) thinking them to be one and the same. The system that Bruce Lee personally expressed was his own personal JKD; tailored for himself. Before he could do this, however, he needed to first develop the "JKD Framework" process. Many of the systems that Bruce Lee studied were not to develop his "Personal JKD" but rather was used to gather the "principles" for incorporation in the JKD Framework approach. The uniqueness of JKD to Lee is that it was a "process" not a "product" and thus not a "style" but a system, concept, or approach. Traditional martial arts styles are essentially a product that is given to a student with little provision for change. These traditional styles are usually fixed and not tailored for individuals. Bruce Lee claimed there were inherent problems with this approach and established a "Process" based system rather than a fixed style which a student could then utilize to make a "tailored" or "Personal" product of their own. To use an analogy; traditional martial arts give students fish to eat (a product). Lee believed that a martial art should just teach the student to fish (a process) and gain the food directly.
The two branches of JKD differ in what should be incorporated or offered within the "JKD Framework". The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch believes that the original principles before Bruce Lee died are all that is needed for the construction of personalized systems. The JKD Concepts branch believe that there are further principles that can be added to construct personalized systems. The value of each Branch can be determined by individual practitioners based on whatever merits they deem important.
Original JKD is further divided into two points of view. OJKD and JFJKD both hold Wing Chun, Western Boxing and Fencing as the cornerstones on Bruce's JKD.
OJKD follows all Bruce's training from early Jun Fan Gung Fu (Seattle period) and focuses on trapping with Wing Chun influence.
Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do is a signature version of JKD as Bruce taught privately to Ted Wong. This is a later time period and practices a greater emphasis on elusiveness and simplified trapping unique to Bruce's later approach to combat. The focus is with Fencing and Western Boxing.
[edit] Bruce Lee
Main article: Bruce Lee
Bruce Lee studied the martial arts style of Wing Chun and was a student of Yip Man in Hong Kong. Later, he learned other arts as well as the sports of western boxing and European fencing. The term Jeet Kune Do occurred in 1968 while Dan Inosanto and Bruce Lee were driving around in his car. The conversation involved European fencing and Lee commented that; "the most efficient means of countering in fencing was the stop-hit...When the opponent attacks, you intercept his move with a thrust or hit of your own.." Lee then said "We should call our method the 'stop-hitting fist style;, or the 'intercepting fist style". Dan Inosanto then said; "What would that be in Chinese?", in which Lee replied "That would be Jeet Kune Do".[7]
A relevant video source of Bruce Lee discussing his Jeet Kune Do appeared in the first episode of the television series Longstreet. The first episode was aptly titled "The Way of the Intercepting Fist". The episode was written specifically for Lee by his friend and long time supporter Stirling Silliphant.
[edit] Quotes
“ The usefulness of a cup is its emptiness.[8] - Be prepared to accept new knowledge and not be hindered or biased by old knowledge. This quote originates from the Tao Te Ching, by Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism. ”
“ Using no way as way. - Don't have preconceived notions about anything. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. It was also used by Bruce Lee often to describe JKD. ”
“ Having no limitation as limitation. - Don't be confined by anything, achieve true freedom. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. ”
“ From form to formless and from finite to infinite. - Don't be confined by limitations and forms. By not having specific form all forms can be included. ”
“ The consciousness of "self" is the greatest hindrance to the proper execution of all physical action.[9] - This is actually a Zen or Chán maxim which means to "be in the moment" and not be distracted by your own thought process. The Zen quote is: "If you seek it, you will not find it". The "Western" counterpart to this is the term "Being in the Zone". ”
“ If people say Jeet Kune Do is different from "this" or from "that," then let the name of Jeet Kune Do be wiped out, for that is what it is, just a name. Please don't fuss over it.[10] - Don't get hung up on labels and parameters. JKD is alive and therefore always changing; JKD embodies all and no style simultaneously, thus cannot be compared. ”
“ To reach me, you must move to me. Your attack offers me an opportunity to intercept you. - Lee explaining the principle of interception to Duke Paige from the television show Longstreet.[11] ”
“ Empty your mind. Be formless, shapeless like water. Now you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle, it becomes the bottle. You put it into a teapot, it becomes the teapot. Now, water can flow, or it can crash! Be water, my friend.Find the path of least resitance - Lee explaining the principle of being like water in a Hong Kong television interview.[12] ”
“ Duke Paige: What is this thing you do? Li Tsing (Bruce Lee): In Cantonese, Jeet Kune Do - the way of the intercepting fist. - From the "Longstreet" television show pilot
Source: Wikipedia
In 2004, the Bruce Lee Foundation decided to use the name Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do (振藩截拳道) to refer to the martial arts system that Lee founded. "Jun Fan" was Lee's Chinese given name, so the literal translation is "Bruce Lee's Way of the Intercepting Fist."
Contents [hide]
1 System and philosophy
1.1 Lee's philosophy
1.2 Modern Jeet Kune Do philosophy
2 Principles
2.1 Be like water
2.2 Economy of motion
2.3 Learn the 4 ranges of combat
2.4 Five Ways Of Attack
2.5 Three Parts of JKD
2.6 Centerline
2.7 Combat Realism
2.8 Absorbing What Is Useful
3 Branches
4 Bruce Lee
4.1 Quotes
5 References
6 See also
7 External links
[edit] System and philosophy
[edit] Lee's philosophy
Jeet Kune Do (JKD) is the name Bruce Lee gave to his combat system and philosophy in 1967. Originally, when Lee began researching various fighting styles, he gave his martial art his own name of Jun Fan Gung Fu. However not wanting to create another style that would share the limitations that all styles have, he instead gave us the process that created it.
Bruce Lee said:
I have not invented a "new style," composite, modified or otherwise that is set within distinct form as apart from "this" method or "that" method. On the contrary, I hope to free my followers from clinging to styles, patterns, or molds. Remember that Jeet Kune Do is merely a name used, a mirror in which to see "ourselves". . . Jeet Kune Do is not an organized institution that one can be a member of. Either you understand or you don't, and that is that. There is no mystery about my style. My movements are simple, direct and non-classical. The extraordinary part of it lies in its simplicity. Every movement in Jeet Kune-Do is being so of itself. There is nothing artificial about it. I always believe that the easy way is the right way. Jeet Kune-Do is simply the direct expression of one's feelings with the minimum of movements and energy. The closer to the true way of Kung Fu, the less wastage of expression there is. Finally, a Jeet Kune Do man who says Jeet Kune Do is exclusively Jeet Kune Do is simply not with it. He is still hung up on his self-closing resistance, in this case anchored down to reactionary pattern, and naturally is still bound by another modified pattern and can move within its limits. He has not digested the simple fact that truth exists outside all molds; pattern and awareness is never exclusive. Again let me remind you Jeet Kune Do is just a name used, a boat to get one across, and once across it is to be discarded and not to be carried on one's back.
– Bruce Lee[2]
[edit] Modern Jeet Kune Do philosophy
JKD as it survives today — if one wants to view it "refined" as a product, not a process — is what was left at the time of Bruce Lee's death. It is the result of the life-long martial arts development process Lee went through. Bruce Lee stated that his concept is not an "adding to" of more and more things on top of each other to form a system, but rather, a winnowing out. The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee's philosophy of "casting off what is useless". He also used the sculptor's mentality of beginning with a lump of clay and hacking away at the "unessentials"; the end result was what he considered to be the bare combat essentials, or JKD.
The core concepts of JKD are derived from Wing Chun. This includes such ideas as centerline control, vertical punching, trapping, and forward pressure. Through his personal research and readings, Lee also incorporated ideas from boxing and fencing. Later during the development of Jeet Kune Do, he would expand to include the art for personal development, not just to become a better fighter. To illustrate Lee's views, in a 1971 Black Belt Magazine article, Lee said "Let it be understood once and for all that I have NOT invented a new style, composite or modification. I have in no way set Jeet Kune Do within a distinct form governed by laws that distinguish it from 'this' style or 'that' method. On the contrary, I hope to free my comrades from bondage to styles, patterns and doctrines."
One of the theories of JKD is that a fighter should do whatever is necessary to defend himself, regardless of where the techniques come from. One of Lee's goals in Jeet Kune Do was to break down what he claimed were limiting factors in traditional martial arts training, and seek a fighting thesis which he believed could only be found within the reality of a fight. Jeet Kune Do is currently seen as the genesis of the modern state of hybrid martial arts.
Jeet Kune Do not only advocates the combination of aspects of different styles, it also can change many of those aspects that it adopts to suit the abilities of the practitioner. Additionally, JKD advocates that any practitioner be allowed to interpret techniques for themselves, and change them for their own purposes. For example, Lee almost always chose to put his power hand in the "lead," with his weaker hand back, within this stance he used elements of Boxing, Fencing and Wing Chun. Just like fencing, he labeled this position the "On Guard" position. Lee incorporated this position into his JKD as he felt it provided the best overall mobility. He felt that the dominant or strongest hand should be in the lead because it would perform a greater percentage of the work. Lee minimized the use of other stances except when circumstances warranted such actions. Although the On-Guard position is a good overall stance, it is by no means the only one. He acknowledged that there were times when other positions should be utilized.
Lee felt the dynamic property of JKD was what enabled its practitioners to adapt to the constant changes and fluctuations of live combat. He believed that these decisions should be done within the context of "real combat" and/or "all out sparring" and that it was only in this environment that a person could actually deem a technique worthy of adoption.
Bruce Lee did not stress the memorization of solo training forms or "Kata", as most traditional styles do in their beginning-level training. He often compared doing forms without an opponent to attempting to learn to swim on dry land. Lee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic. Circumstances in a fight change from millisecond to millisecond, and thus pre-arranged patterns and techniques are not adequate in dealing with such a changing situation. As an anecdote to this thinking, Lee once wrote an epitaph which read: 'In memory of a once fluid man, crammed and distorted by the classical mess.' The "classical mess" in this instance was what Lee thought of classical martial arts.
Bruce Lee's comments and methods were seen as controversial by many in his time, and still are today. Many teachers from traditional schools disagreed with his opinions on these issues.
The notion of cross-training in Jeet Kune Do is similar to the practice of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) in modern times — Bruce Lee has been considered by UFC president Dana White as the "father of mixed martial arts".[3] Many consider Jeet Kune Do to be the precursor of MMA because of its syncretic nature. This is particularly the case with respect to the JKD "Combat Ranges". A JKD student is expected to learn various combat systems within each combat range, and thus to be effective in all of them, just as in MMA.
[edit] Principles
[4] The following are principles that Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do. He felt these were universal combat truths that were self evident and would lead to combat success if followed. The "4 Combat Ranges" in particular are what he felt were instrumental in becoming a "total" martial artist. This is also the principle most related to mixed martial arts.
JKD practitioners also subscribe to the notion that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of "Intercepting". Lee believed that in order for an opponent to attack someone they had to move towards them. This provided an opportunity to "intercept" that attack or movement. The principle of interception covers more than just intercepting physical attacks. Lee believed that many non-verbals and telegraphs (subtle movements that an opponent is unaware of) could be perceived or "intercepted" and thus be used to one's advantage. The "5 Ways of Attack" are attacking categories that help Jeet Kune Do practitioners organize their fighting repertoire and comprise the offensive portion of JKD. The concepts of Stop hits & stop kicks and simultaneous parrying & punching were borrowed from European Fencing and Wing Chun's theory of simultaneous defending and attacking, and comprise the defensive portion of JKD. These concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee. These concepts also complement the other principle of interception.
[edit] Be like water
Lee believed that martial systems should be as flexible as possible. He often used water as an analogy for describing why flexibility is a desired trait in martial arts. Water is infinitely flexible. It can be seen through, and yet at other times it can obscure things from sight. It can split and go around things, rejoining on the other side, or it can crash through things. It can erode the hardest rocks by gently lapping away at them or it can flow past the tiniest pebble. Lee believed that a martial system should have these attributes. JKD students reject traditional systems of training, fighting styles and the Confucian pedagogy used in traditional kung fu schools because of this lack of flexibility. JKD is claimed to be a dynamic concept that is forever changing, thus being extremely flexible. "Absorb what is useful; Disregard that which is useless" is an often quoted Bruce Lee maxim. JKD students are encouraged to study every form of combat possible. This is believed to expand one's knowledge of other fighting systems; to both add to one's arsenal as well as to know how to defend against such tactics.
[edit] Economy of motion
JKD students are told to waste no time or movement. When it comes to combat JKD practitioners believe the simplest things work best. Economy of motion is the principle by which JKD practitioners achieve "efficiency" describe in the three parts of JKD. Utilizing this principle conserves both energy and time. Energy and time are two crucial components in a physical confrontation that often leads to success if employed efficiently. In combat situations maximizing one's energy is beneficial in maintaining physical activity. Likewise minimizing the time to execute techniques because of traveling less distance is beneficial in that the opponent has less time to react.
Stop hits & stop kicks
This means intercepting an opponent's attack with an attack of your own instead of a simple block. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy is a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts, as well as an essential component of European épée fencing (known in fencing terminology as the "counter-attack"). Stop hits & kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement thus minimizing the "time" element.
Simultaneous parrying & punching
When confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected and a counter attack is delivered at the same time. Not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counter attacking in sequence. This is also practiced by some Chinese martial arts. Simultaneous parrying & punching utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into two movements thus minimizing the "time" element and maximizing the "energy" element. Efficiency is gained by utilizing a parry rather then a block. By definition a "block" stops an attack whereas a parry merely re-directs an attack. Redirection has two advantages: It requires less energy to execute. It utilizes the opponents energy against them by creating an imbalance. Efficiency is also gained in that the opponent has less time to react to the nullification of their attack while having to worry about defending an incoming attack.
No high kicks
JKD practitioners believe they should target their kicks to their opponent's shins, knees, thighs, and mid section. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is "written in stone". If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage of the situation without feeling hampered by this principle. Maintaining low kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by reducing the distance a kick must travel thus minimizing the "time" element. Low kicks are also more difficult to detect and thus guard against.
[edit] Learn the 4 ranges of combat
Kicking
Punching
Trapping
Grappling
Jeet Kune Do students train in each of these ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Bruce Lee's theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of Mixed Martial Arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historical note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range.[5] These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms although there may still be others who prefer the three categories.
[edit] Five Ways Of Attack
[6]
Single Angle Attack (SAA) and its converse Single Direct Attack (SDA).
Hand Immobilization Attack (HIA) and its counterpart Foot Immobilization attack, which make use of trapping to limit the opponent's function with that appendage.
Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA). Attacking one part of the opponent's body followed by attacking another part as a means of creating an opening.
Attack By Combinations (ABC). This is using multiple rapid attacks, with volume of attack as a means of overcoming the opponent.
Attack By Drawing (ABD). This is creating an opening with positioning as a means of counter attacking.
[edit] Three Parts of JKD
JKD practitioners believe that techniques should contain the following properties:
Efficiency - An attack that reaches its mark
Directness - Doing what comes naturally in a learned way.
Simplicity - Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.
[edit] Centerline
The centerline refers to an imaginary line running down the center of one's body. The theory is to exploit, control and dominate your opponent's centerline. All attacks, defenses and footwork are designed to preserve your own centerline and open your opponent's. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from Wing Chun. This notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess.
The three guidelines for centerline are:
The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.
Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent's.
Control the centerline by occupying it.
[edit] Combat Realism
One of the premises that Bruce Lee incorporated in Jeet Kune do was "combat realism". He insisted that martial arts techniques should be incorporated based upon its effectiveness in real combat situations. This would differentiate JKD from other systems where there was an emphasis on "flowery technique" as Lee would put it. Lee claimed that flashy "flowery techniques" would arguably "look good" but where often times not practical or prove ineffective in street survival and self-defense situations. This premise would also differentiate JKD from other "sport" oriented martial arts systems that where geared towards "tournament" or "point systems". Lee felt that these systems where "artificial" and fooled its practitioners into a false sense of true martial skill. Lee felt that because these systems favored a "sports" approach they incorporated too may rule sets that would ultimately handicap a practitioner in self defense situations. He also felt that this approach to martial arts became a "game of tag" which would lead to bad habits such as pulling punches and other attacks; this would again lead to disastrous consequences in real world situations. Because of this perspective Lee utilized safety gear from various other contact sports to allow him to spar with opponents "full out". This approach to training allowed practitioners to come as close as possible to real combat situations with a high degree of safety. Donn Draeger world renown martial arts pioneer was the first Westerner to bring widespread attention to the often cited “-do” versus “-jutsu” controversy. Historically the "do" or way arts where based on the "jutsu" or technique arts without what was deemed "dangerous techniques". The "do" arts such as Judo where thus seen as a "water downed" version of their 'jutsu" counterparts such as Ju-Jutsu a combat tested martial art; and thus considered a sport. Lee objected to these "sport" versions of martial arts because of this emphasis on combat realism.
[edit] Absorbing What Is Useful
This is perhaps the least understood and most confusing principle in Jeet Kune Do. This principle does not mean choosing, collecting, compiling, or assembling the best techniques from various diverse styles and slapping them together to form a new style. To do so is to miss the point of Jeet Kune Do. Absorbing what is useful is about immersing oneself in style or system and learning and grasping its essence. It is only through a holistic approach that one learns techniques in their proper context. Styles provide more than just mere techniques; they offer training methods, theories, and mental attitudes to name a few. Learning all of these factors allows a student to experience a system (in what Lee would call) its "totality". It is only through its totality that one can "absorb what is useful". Applying what is learned in real combat training situations is what allows the student to figure what works or doesn't work for oneself. It is at this point that one can "discard that which is useless". The critical point of this principle is that the choice of what to keep is based on personal experimentation with various opponents over time. It is not based on how a technique may look or feel or how well one can execute it. In the final analysis if the technique is not beneficial in combat it is discarded. Lee believed that only the individual could come to understand what worked for oneself based on critical self analysis and by "honestly expressing oneself; without lying to oneself".
[edit] Branches
Although Bruce Lee officially closed his martial arts schools two years before his death, he allowed his curriculum to be taught privately. Since his death, Jeet Kune Do is argued to have split into different groups. Allegedly they are:
The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch, whose proponents include Taky Kimura, James Lee, Jerry Poteet, and Ted Wong; these groups claim to teach what was believed to be only what was taught by Bruce Lee, and encourage the student to further develop his or her abilities through those teachings. The inherent training principles of this branch are shaped by the static concept of what was "originally taught", just as the training systems of "traditional" martial arts have been taught for centuries and become recognizable as "styles", except it is referred to as a philosophy of "style without style".
The JKD Concepts branch, whose proponents include Dan Inosanto, Richard Bustillo, Larry Hartsell; these groups strive to continue the philosophy of individual self-expression through re-interpretation of combat systems through the lens of Jeet Kune Do, under the concept that it was never meant to be a static art but rather an ongoing evolution, and have incorporated elements from many other martial arts into the main fold of its teachings (most notably, grappling and Kali / Escrima material) based on the individual's personal preferences and physical attributes. The entire JKD "system" can be described through a simple diagram, and the concepts can then be applied to a variety of contexts in a "universal" way.
To understand the branches of JKD it is important to understand the difference between the two "types" or viewpoints of Jeet Kune Do:
JKD framework This type of JKD provides the guiding principles. Bruce Lee experimented with many styles and techniques to reach these conclusions. To Lee these principles were truisms. The JKD framework is not bound or confined by any styles or systems. This type of JKD is a process.
JKD Personal Systems This type of JKD utilizes the JKD framework along with any techniques from any other style or system to construct a "personal system". This approach utilizes a "building blocks" manner in which to construct a personalized system that is especially tailored to an individual. Lee believed that only an individual could determine for themselves what the usefulness of any technique should be. This type of JKD is thus a product.
Lee believed that this freedom of adoption was a distinguishing property from traditional martial arts.
There are many who confuse the JKD Framework with a JKD Personal System (IE. Bruce Lee's personal JKD) thinking them to be one and the same. The system that Bruce Lee personally expressed was his own personal JKD; tailored for himself. Before he could do this, however, he needed to first develop the "JKD Framework" process. Many of the systems that Bruce Lee studied were not to develop his "Personal JKD" but rather was used to gather the "principles" for incorporation in the JKD Framework approach. The uniqueness of JKD to Lee is that it was a "process" not a "product" and thus not a "style" but a system, concept, or approach. Traditional martial arts styles are essentially a product that is given to a student with little provision for change. These traditional styles are usually fixed and not tailored for individuals. Bruce Lee claimed there were inherent problems with this approach and established a "Process" based system rather than a fixed style which a student could then utilize to make a "tailored" or "Personal" product of their own. To use an analogy; traditional martial arts give students fish to eat (a product). Lee believed that a martial art should just teach the student to fish (a process) and gain the food directly.
The two branches of JKD differ in what should be incorporated or offered within the "JKD Framework". The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch believes that the original principles before Bruce Lee died are all that is needed for the construction of personalized systems. The JKD Concepts branch believe that there are further principles that can be added to construct personalized systems. The value of each Branch can be determined by individual practitioners based on whatever merits they deem important.
Original JKD is further divided into two points of view. OJKD and JFJKD both hold Wing Chun, Western Boxing and Fencing as the cornerstones on Bruce's JKD.
OJKD follows all Bruce's training from early Jun Fan Gung Fu (Seattle period) and focuses on trapping with Wing Chun influence.
Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do is a signature version of JKD as Bruce taught privately to Ted Wong. This is a later time period and practices a greater emphasis on elusiveness and simplified trapping unique to Bruce's later approach to combat. The focus is with Fencing and Western Boxing.
[edit] Bruce Lee
Main article: Bruce Lee
Bruce Lee studied the martial arts style of Wing Chun and was a student of Yip Man in Hong Kong. Later, he learned other arts as well as the sports of western boxing and European fencing. The term Jeet Kune Do occurred in 1968 while Dan Inosanto and Bruce Lee were driving around in his car. The conversation involved European fencing and Lee commented that; "the most efficient means of countering in fencing was the stop-hit...When the opponent attacks, you intercept his move with a thrust or hit of your own.." Lee then said "We should call our method the 'stop-hitting fist style;, or the 'intercepting fist style". Dan Inosanto then said; "What would that be in Chinese?", in which Lee replied "That would be Jeet Kune Do".[7]
A relevant video source of Bruce Lee discussing his Jeet Kune Do appeared in the first episode of the television series Longstreet. The first episode was aptly titled "The Way of the Intercepting Fist". The episode was written specifically for Lee by his friend and long time supporter Stirling Silliphant.
[edit] Quotes
“ The usefulness of a cup is its emptiness.[8] - Be prepared to accept new knowledge and not be hindered or biased by old knowledge. This quote originates from the Tao Te Ching, by Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism. ”
“ Using no way as way. - Don't have preconceived notions about anything. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. It was also used by Bruce Lee often to describe JKD. ”
“ Having no limitation as limitation. - Don't be confined by anything, achieve true freedom. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. ”
“ From form to formless and from finite to infinite. - Don't be confined by limitations and forms. By not having specific form all forms can be included. ”
“ The consciousness of "self" is the greatest hindrance to the proper execution of all physical action.[9] - This is actually a Zen or Chán maxim which means to "be in the moment" and not be distracted by your own thought process. The Zen quote is: "If you seek it, you will not find it". The "Western" counterpart to this is the term "Being in the Zone". ”
“ If people say Jeet Kune Do is different from "this" or from "that," then let the name of Jeet Kune Do be wiped out, for that is what it is, just a name. Please don't fuss over it.[10] - Don't get hung up on labels and parameters. JKD is alive and therefore always changing; JKD embodies all and no style simultaneously, thus cannot be compared. ”
“ To reach me, you must move to me. Your attack offers me an opportunity to intercept you. - Lee explaining the principle of interception to Duke Paige from the television show Longstreet.[11] ”
“ Empty your mind. Be formless, shapeless like water. Now you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle, it becomes the bottle. You put it into a teapot, it becomes the teapot. Now, water can flow, or it can crash! Be water, my friend.Find the path of least resitance - Lee explaining the principle of being like water in a Hong Kong television interview.[12] ”
“ Duke Paige: What is this thing you do? Li Tsing (Bruce Lee): In Cantonese, Jeet Kune Do - the way of the intercepting fist. - From the "Longstreet" television show pilot
Source: Wikipedia
Friday, January 29, 2010
Valeria to Alex
Thanks, Alex, for your mentioning my comment to your photo. It is really picturesque! And your comment is just like from out of this world. I liked it.
Valeria
Valeria
Speed of light
The speed of light (usually denoted c) is a physical constant. Its value is exactly 299,792,458 metres per second,[1][2] often approximated as 300,000 kilometres per second or 186,000 miles per second (see the table on the right for values in other units). It is the speed of electromagnetic radiation (such as radio waves, visible light, or gamma rays) in vacuum, where there are no atoms, molecules or other types of matter that can slow it down.
For much of human history, it was not known whether light was transmitted instantaneously or simply very quickly. In the 17th century, Ole Rømer first demonstrated that it travelled at a finite speed by studying the apparent motion of Jupiter's moon Io. By 1975, the speed of light was known to be 299,792,458 m/s with a relative measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion. In 1983, the metre was redefined in the International System of Units (SI) as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second. As a result, the numerical value of c in metres per second is now fixed exactly by the definition of the metre.[1][2]
According to the theory of special relativity, c connects space and time in the unified structure of spacetime, and its square is the constant of proportionality between mass and energy (E = mc2).[3] In any inertial frame of reference, independently of the relative velocity of the emitter and the observer, c is the speed of all massless particles and associated fields, including all electromagnetic radiation in free space,[4] and it is believed to be the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves.[5][6] It is an upper bound on the speed at which energy, matter, and information can travel,[7][8] as surpassing it "would lead to the destruction of the essential relation between cause and effect."[9] Its finite value is a limiting factor in the speed of operation of electronic devices.[10]
The actual speed at which light propagates through transparent materials, such as glass or air, is less than c. The ratio between c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the refractive index n of the material (n = c / v). For example, for visible light the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at c / 1.5 ≈ 200,000 km/s; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1.0003, so the speed of light in air is very close to c.
Contents [hide]
1 Numerical value, notation and units
2 Fundamental role in physics
2.1 Upper limit on speeds
2.1.1 Faster-than-light observations and experiments
2.1.1.1 Galaxies moving faster than light
3 Propagation of light
3.1 In a medium
4 Practical effects of finiteness
4.1 Distance measurement
4.2 Astronomy
5 History
5.1 Ancient, medieval and early modern speculation
5.2 First measurement attempts
5.3 Early astronomical techniques
5.4 Earth-bound techniques
5.4.1 Cavity resonance
5.4.2 Heterodyne laser measurements
5.5 Redefinition of the metre
6 Modern astronomical measurements
7 Laboratory demonstration
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Historical references
10.3 Modern references
11 External links
[edit] Numerical value, notation and units
The speed of light is a dimensional physical constant, so its numerical value depends on the system of units used. In the International System of Units (SI), the metre is defined as the distance light travels in vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second (see "Redefinition of the metre", below). The effect of this definition is to fix the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 299,792,458 m/s.[Note 1][12][13][14]
The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by c, for "constant" or the Latin celeritas (meaning "swiftness"). Originally, the symbol V was used, introduced by Maxwell in 1865. In 1856, Weber and Kohlrausch had used c for a constant later shown to equal √2 times the speed of light in vacuum. In 1894, Drude redefined c with its modern meaning. Einstein used V in his original German-language papers on special relativity in 1905, but in 1907 he switched to c, which by then had become the standard symbol.[15]
Some authors use c for the speed of waves in any material medium, and c0 for the speed of light in vacuum.[16] This subscripted notation, which is endorsed in official SI literature,[1] has the same form as other related constants: namely, μ0 for the vacuum permeability or magnetic constant, ε0 for the vacuum permittivity or electric constant, and Z0 for the impedance of free space. This article uses c exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum.
In branches of physics in which the speed of light plays an important part, such as in relativity, it is common to use systems of natural units of measurement in which c = 1.[17][18] When such a system of measurement is used, the speed of light drops out of the equations of physics, because multiplication or division by 1 does not affect the result.
[edit] Fundamental role in physics
See also: Introduction to special relativity and Special relativity
The speed at which light propagates in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the light source and of the inertial frame of reference of the observer.[Note 2] The constancy of the speed of light was postulated by Albert Einstein in 1905, motivated by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous ether;[19] it has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments.[Note 3] [18][20] The theory of special relativity explores the consequences an invariant speed c and the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.[21][22] One consequence is that c is the speed at which all massless particles and waves, including light, must travel.
Event A precedes B in the red frame, is simultaneous with B in the green frame, and follows B in the blue frame.Special relativity has many counter-intuitive implications, but they have been verified in many experiments.[23] These include the equivalence of mass and energy (E = mc2), length contraction (moving objects shorten),[Note 4] and time dilation (moving clocks run slower). Length contraction and time dilation are negligible for speeds much slower than c, such as most everyday speeds, in which case special relativity is closely approximated by Galilean relativity.
Another counter-intuitive consequence of special relativity is the relativity of simultaneity: if the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by c, then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. Such events cannot have a causal relation.
The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as spacetime (with c relating the units of space and time), and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special symmetry called Lorentz invariance, whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter c.[26] Lorentz invariance has become an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories, such as quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics, the Standard Model of particle physics, and general relativity. As such, the parameter c is ubiquitous in modern physics, appearing in many contexts that may seem to be unrelated to light. For example, general relativity predicts that c is also the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves.[27]
In non-inertial frames of reference (gravitationally curved space or accelerated reference frames), the local speed of light is constant and equal to c, but the speed of light along a trajectory of finite length can differ from c, depending on how distances and times are defined.[28]
It is generally assumed in physics that fundamental constants such as c have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, various theories have suggested that the speed of light has changed over time.[29][30] Although no conclusive evidence for such theories has been found, they remain the subject of ongoing research.[31][32][33]
[edit] Upper limit on speeds
See also: Chronology protection conjecture
The Lorentz factor γ as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c.According to special relativity, the energy of an object with rest mass m and speed v is given by γmc2, where γ = (1 − v2/c2)−1/2 is the Lorentz factor. When v is zero, γ is equal to one, giving rise to the famous E = mc2 formula for mass-energy equivalence. The γ factor grows rapidly with v and approaches infinity as v approaches c. It would thus take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with non-zero rest mass.
More generally, it is normally impossible for any information or energy to travel faster than c. One reason is that according to the theory of special relativity, if something were travelling faster than c relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame,[Note 5] and causality would be violated.[Note 6][9] In such a frame of reference, an "effect" could be observed before its "cause". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded,[20] and would lead to paradoxes.[Note 7][35]
[edit] Faster-than-light observations and experiments
Main article: Faster-than-light
See also: Scharnhorst effect and Hartman effect
There are situations in which it may seem that matter, energy, or information travels at speeds greater than c, but they do not. For example, if a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object, the spot of light can move faster than c, but the only physical entities that are moving are the laser and its emitted light that travels at the speed c from the laser to the various positions of the spot. The movement of the spot will be delayed after the laser is moved because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object from the laser. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than c.[36] In neither case does any matter or information travel faster than light.[37]
In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, certain quantum effects may seem to be transmitted faster than c– and thus instantaneously in some frame – as in the EPR paradox. An example involves the quantum states of two particles that can be entangled. Until either of the particles is observed, they exist in a superposition of two quantum states. If the particles are separated and one particle's quantum state is observed, the other particle's quantum state is determined instantaneously (i.e., faster than light could travel from one particle to the other). However, it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed, so information cannot be transmitted in this manner.[37][38]
Another prediction of faster-than-light speeds occurs for quantum tunnelling and is called the Hartman effect.[39][40] However, no information can be sent using this effect.[41]
Closing speeds and proper speeds are examples of calculated speeds that may have value in excess of c but that do not represent the speed of an object as measured in a single inertial frame.
So-called superluminal motion is seen in certain astronomical objects,[42] such as the jets of radio galaxies and quasars. However, these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light: the apparent superluminal motion is a projection effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight: since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth, the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the instants at which the light rays were emitted.[43]
[edit] Galaxies moving faster than light
See also: Metric expansion of space and Hubble's Law
In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion through space, but rather to the expansion of space itself.[37] For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, this apparent recessional velocity becomes greater than the speed of light.
[edit] Propagation of light
In classical physics, light is described as a type of electromagnetic wave. The classical behaviour of the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations, which predict that the speed c with which electromagnetic waves (such as light) propagate through the vacuum is related to the electric constant ε0 and the magnetic constant μ0 by the equation c = 1/√ε0μ0.[44]
In modern quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED). In this theory, light is described by the fundamental excitations (or quanta) of the electromagnetic field, called photons. In QED, photons are massless particles and thus, according to special relativity, they must travel at the speed of light.
Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered. In such a theory, its speed would depend on its frequency, and the invariant speed c of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum.[28] To date no such effects have been observed,[45][46][47] putting stringent limits on the photon mass. The limit obtained depends on the used model: if the massive photon is described by Proca theory,[48] the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10−57 grams.[49] If photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism, the experimental upper limit is less sharp, m ≤ 10−14 eV/c2 [48] (roughly 2 × 10−47 g).
Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales, as predicted by some proposed theories of quantum gravity. In 2009, the observation of the spectrum of gamma-ray burst GRB 090510 did not find any difference in the speeds of photons of different energies, confirming that Lorentz invariance is verified at least down to the scale of the Planck length (lP = √ħG/c3 ≈ 1.6163×10−35 m) divided by 1.2.[50]
[edit] In a medium
See also: Refractive index and Dispersion (optics)
The light passing through a prism demonstrates refraction and, by the splitting of white light into a spectrum of colours, dispersion.When light enters materials, its energy is absorbed. In the case of transparent materials, this energy is quickly re-radiated. However, this absorption and re-radiation introduces a delay. As light propagates through dielectric material it undergoes continuous absorption and re-radiation. Therefore when the speed of light in a medium is said to be less than c, this should be read as the speed of energy propagation at the macroscopic level. At an atomic level, electromagnetic waves always travel at c in the empty space between atoms. Two factors influence this slowing; stronger absorption leading to shorter path length between each re-radiation cycle and longer delays. The slowing is therefore the product of these two factors.[51] The refractive index of a transparent material is defined as the ratio of c to the speed of light v in the material. Larger indexes of refraction indicate smaller speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity, polarization, or direction of propagation. In many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0003.[52] Denser media, such as water and glass, have refractive indexes of around 1.3 and 1.5 respectively for visible light. Diamond has a refractive index of about 2.4.
If the refractive index of a material depends on the frequency of the light passing through the medium, there exist two notions of the speed of light in the medium. The first is the speed of a wave of a single frequency f. This is called the phase velocity vp(f), and is related to the frequency dependent refractive index n(f) by
The second is the average velocity of a pulse of light consisting of different frequencies of light. This is called the group velocity and not only depends on the properties of the medium but also the distribution of frequencies in the pulse. A pulse with different group and phase velocities is said to undergo dispersion.
Certain materials have an exceptionally low group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called slow light. In 1999, a team of scientists led by Lene Hau were able to slow the speed of a light pulse to about 17 metres per second (61 km/h; 38 mph);[53] in 2001, they were able to momentarily stop a beam.[54] In 2003, scientists at Harvard University and the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow, succeeded in completely halting light by directing it into a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, the atoms of which, in Lukin's words, behaved "like tiny mirrors" due to an interference pattern in two "control" beams.[55][56]
It is also possible for the group velocity of light pulses to exceed c.[57] In an experiment in 2000, laser beams travelled for extremely short distances through caesium atoms with a group velocity of 300 times c.[58] It is not possible to transmit information faster than c by this means because the speed of information transfer cannot exceed the front velocity of the wave pulse, which is always less than c.[59] The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of any material, corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the attenuation coefficient, are linked by the Kramers–Kronig relations.
[edit] Practical effects of finiteness
The finiteness of the speed of light has implications for various sciences and technologies. For some it creates challenges or limits: for example, c, being the upper limit of the speed with which signals can be sent, provides a theoretical upper limit for the operating speed of microprocessors.[60] For others it creates opportunities, for example to measure distances.
[edit] Distance measurement
A beam of light is depicted travelling between the Earth and the Moon in the same time it takes light to scale the distance between them: 1.255 seconds at its mean orbital (surface to surface) distance. The relative sizes and separation of the Earth–Moon system are shown to scale.Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite, and from these distances calculates the receiver's position. Because light travels about 300,000 kilometres (186,000 miles) in one second, these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise. The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment, radar astronomy and the Deep Space Network determine distances to the Moon, planets and spacecraft, respectively, by measuring round-trip transit times.
[edit] Astronomy
The finite speed of light is important in astronomy. Due to the vast distances involved, it can take a very long time for light to travel from its source to Earth. For example, it requires 13 billion (13 × 109) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images.[citation needed] Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that farther-away objects appear younger (due to the finite speed of light) allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.
Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications.[61] A light‑year is the distance light travels in one year, around 9461 billion kilometres, 5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light‑years away.[62]
A celestial object will exhibit apparent motion due to the motion of the observer and the finiteness of the speed of light. This effect is called stellar aberration. For an observer on Earth, it can be up to 20 arcseconds due to the Earth's motion, and is taken into account for precise astronomical observations.[citation needed] Conversely, if a celestial object itself is moving, it will have moved a certain amount in time that the light needed to reach Earth. The correction needed to obtain the true (current) position is known as Light-time correction.[citation needed]
[edit] History
[edit] Ancient, medieval and early modern speculation
Until the early modern period, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece. Empedocles maintained that light was something in motion, and therefore must take some time to travel. Aristotle argued, to the contrary, that "light is due to the presence of something, but it is not a movement".[63] Euclid and Ptolemy advanced the emission theory of vision, where light is emitted from the eye, thus enabling sight. Based on that theory, Heron of Alexandria argued that the speed of light must be infinite because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.
Early Islamic philosophers initially agreed with the Aristotelian view that light had no speed of travel. In 1021, Islamic physicist Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) published the Book of Optics, in which he used experiments related to the camera obscura to support the now accepted intromission theory of vision, in which light moves from an object into the eye.[64] This led Alhazen to propose that light must therefore have a finite speed,[63][65][66] and that the speed of light is variable, decreasing in denser bodies.[66][67] He argued that light is a "substantial matter", the propagation of which requires time "even if this is hidden to our senses".[68]
Also in the 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī agreed that light has a finite speed, and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.[69] Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle.[70][71] In the 1270s, Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in a vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.[72]
A comment on a verse in the Rigveda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana mentioned a speed of light equivalent to about 186,400 miles per second, which was apparently chosen so that light would encircle the Puranic universe in one day.[73][74] One scholar proclaimed this "the most astonishing 'blind hit' in the history of science!"[75] In 1574, the Ottoman astronomer and physicist Taqi al-Din concluded that the speed of light is finite, correctly explained refraction as the result of light traveling more slowly in denser bodies, and suggested that it would take a long time for light from distant stars to reach the Earth.[76][77]
In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler believed that the speed of light was infinite since empty space presents no obstacle to it. René Descartes argued that if the speed of light were finite, the Sun, Earth, and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a lunar eclipse. Since such misalignment had not been observed, Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite. Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite, his whole system of philosophy might be demolished.[63]
[edit] First measurement attempts
In 1629, Isaac Beeckman proposed an experiment in which a person would observe the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1638, Galileo Galilei proposed an experiment, with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier, to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away. He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instaneous or not, but concluded that if it weren't, it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid.[78][79] Galileo's experiment was carried out by the Accademia del Cimento of Florence in 1667, with the lanterns separated by about one mile, but no delay was observed. Based on the modern value of the speed of light, the actual delay in this experiment would be about 11 microseconds. Robert Hooke explained the negative results as Galileo had by pointing out that such observations did not establish the infinite speed of light, but only that the speed must be very great.
[edit] Early astronomical techniques
Main article: Rømer's determination of the speed of light
Rømer's observations of the occultations of Io from EarthThe first quantitative estimate of the speed of light was made in 1676 by Ole Christensen Rømer. He was one of a group of astronomers of the French Royal Academy of Sciences who were studying the motion of Jupiter's moons as a means of determining the longitude at a remote location.[Note 8][80][81] From the observation that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon Io appeared to be shorter when the earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it, he concluded that light travels at a finite speed, and was able to estimate that would take light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth's orbit. Christiaan Huygens combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of 220,000 km/s, 26% lower than the actual value.[82] The same effect was subsequently observed by Rømer for a "spot" rotating with the surface of Jupiter. Later observations also showed the effect with the three other Galilean moons, where it was more difficult to observe, thus laying to rest some further objections that had been raised.
Isaac Newton also accepted the finite speed. In his 1704 book Opticks he gives a value of "seven or eight minutes" for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth (the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds).[83]
Aberration of light: light from location 1 will appear to be from location 2 for a moving telescope due to the finite speed of light.Between 1725 and 1728, James Bradley, while searching for stellar parallax, observed the apparent motion of the star Gamma Draconis depending on the season of the year. He realized that the motion (about 39 arcseconds) could not be a parallax (it was in the wrong direction at any given time) and, after ruling out several other possible causes, produced the theory of the aberration of light,[84] a vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from the star and the velocity of the Earth around its orbit. The effect is that an observer on the Earth will see the light coming from a slightly different angle than the "true" value which, for a star in the sky, means a slightly different position. The effect is greatest near the orbital pole which, for the Earth, is close to γ Draconis. Bradley was able to predict the aberration for several other stars, and confirm his predictions by observation.[84] His observations on γ Draconis gave a ratio of the speed of light to the mean linear speed of the Earth's orbital motion: Bradley's figure was that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.[84]
[edit] Earth-bound techniques
See also: Fizeau–Foucault apparatus
Diagram of the Fizeau apparatusThe first successful entirely earthbound measurement of the speed of light was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau's experiment was conceptually similar to those proposed by Beeckman and Galileo. A beam of light was directed at a mirror 8 kilometres (5 mi) away. On the way from the source to the mirror, the beam passed through a rotating cog wheel. At a certain rate of rotation, the beam could pass through one gap on the way out and another on the way back, but at slightly higher or lower rates, the beam would strike a tooth and not pass through the wheel. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, the speed of light could be calculated. Fizeau reported the speed of light as 315,000 km/s. Léon Foucault improved on Fizeau's method by replacing the cogwheel with a rotating mirror. Foucault's estimate, published in 1862, was 298,000 km/s.[85]
In 1879, Albert Michelson performed a similar experiment at the US Naval Academy. He measured the speed of light in air to be 299,864±51 kilometres per second, and estimated the speed of light in vacuum as 299,940 km/s, or 186,380 mi/s.[86]
In 1887, Michelson and Edward Morley performed an experiment to detect differences in the speed of light due to the Earth's motion through the luminiferous ether, at what is now Case Western Reserve University.[87] Its failure is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against the ether theory.
[edit] Cavity resonance
Electromagnetic standing waves in a cavity.During World War II, the development of the cavity resonance wavemeter for use in radar, together with precision timing methods, opened the way to laboratory-based measurements of the speed of light. In 1946, Louis Essen and A.C. Gordon-Smith used a microwave cavity of precisely known dimensions to establish the frequency for a variety of normal modes of microwaves. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory, knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light.[88][89]
The Essen–Gordon-Smith result, 299,792±9 km/s, was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques.[89] By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of 299,792.5±3.0 km/s.[90]
[edit] Heterodyne laser measurements
An idealized interferometric determination of wavelength obtained by looking at interference fringes between two coherent beams recombined after travelling different distances. Top: Constructive interference (in phase); If the difference in path length is a multiple of a wavelength, the recombined beams support one another and reconstitute the original beam. Bottom: Destructive interference (out of phase); If the two paths differ by half a wavelength, the recombined beams are out of phase and cancel each other. The bottom panel in the figure suggests the path length has been increased by half a wavelength by moving the right-hand point of reflection further out.An alternative to the cavity resonator method to find the wavelength for determining the speed of light is to use a form of interferometer, indicated schematically in the figure.[91] A coherent light beam with a known frequency (f), as from a laser, is split to follow two paths and then recombined. By carefully changing the path length and observing the interference pattern, the wavelength of the light (λ) can be determined, which is related to the speed of light by the equation c = λf.
The main difficulty in measuring c through interferometry is to measure the frequency of light in or near the optical region; such frequencies are too high to be measured with conventional methods. This was first overcome by a group at the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) laboratories in Boulder, Colorado, in 1972.[92] By a series of photodiodes and specially constructed metal–insulator–metal diodes, they succeeded in linking the frequency of a methane-stabilized infrared laser to the frequency of the caesium transition used in atomic clocks (nearly 10,000 times lower, in the microwave region).[93] Their results for the frequency and wavelength of the infrared laser, and the resulting value for c, were:
f = 88.376181627±0.000000050 THz;
λ = 3.392231376±0.000000012 µm;
c = 299,792,456.2±1.1 m/s;
nearly a hundred times more precise than previous measurements of the speed of light.[92][93]
[edit] Redefinition of the metre
See also: Metre
The 1972 measurement of the speed of light, with a relative uncertainty of 4×10−9, was not only a feat of experimental precision, but also revealed a limiting factor to how precisely the speed of light could be measured by any technique: almost all the remaining uncertainty in the value of the speed of light was due to uncertainty in the length of the metre.[92][93][94] Since 1960, the metre had been defined as a given number of wavelengths of the light of one of the spectral lines of a krypton lamp,[Note 9] but it turned out that the chosen spectral line was not perfectly symmetrical.[93] This made its wavelength, and hence the length of the metre, uncertain, because the definition did not specify what point on the line profile (e.g., its maximum-intensity point or its centre of gravity) it referred to.[Note 10] By analogy with a metal measuring rod, it was as if the rod were slightly fuzzy at each end—although comparable fuzziness at the ends of a one-metre rod would be apparent only at the atomic scale.
To get round this problem, in 1975, the 15th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) recommended using 299,792,458 metres per second for "the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves in vacuum".[94] Based on this recommendation, the 17th CGPM in 1983 redefined the metre as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1⁄299,792,458 of a second".[96]
The effect of this definition gives the speed of light the exact value 299,792,458 m/s, which is nearly the same as the value 299,792,456.2±1.1 m/s obtained in the 1972 experiment. The CGPM chose this value to minimise any change in the length of the metre.[97][98] As a result, in the SI system of units the speed of light is now a defined constant[14] and no longer something to be measured.[93] Improved experimental techniques do not affect the value of the speed of light in SI units, but do result in a more precise realisation of the SI metre.[99][100]
[edit] Modern astronomical measurements
As described above, an important consideration in measuring the speed of light with high accuracy is using a precise standard of length. The SI unit of length is determined by c through the 1983 definition of the metre. Therefore, to measure the speed of light, one must use a standard of length that is not based on the SI metre and that is defined independently of c.
The astronomical unit is one such standard. It is approximately equal to the average distance between the Earth and the Sun.[Note 11] The "light time per unit distance"—the inverse of c, expressed in seconds per astronomical unit—can be measured by comparing the time taken for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a best fit value for the light time per unit distance is obtained. As of 2009[update], the best estimate, as approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is:[102][103][104]
light time per unit distance: 499.004783836(10) s
c = 0.00200398880410(4) AU/s = 173.144632674(3) AU/day
The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (0.02 × 10−9), equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry.[105][106]
[edit] Laboratory demonstration
With modern oscilloscopes having time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror, although this method is less precise than either the cavity resonator or the interferometric methods. This technique is used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.[107][108][109]
Source: Wikipedia
For much of human history, it was not known whether light was transmitted instantaneously or simply very quickly. In the 17th century, Ole Rømer first demonstrated that it travelled at a finite speed by studying the apparent motion of Jupiter's moon Io. By 1975, the speed of light was known to be 299,792,458 m/s with a relative measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion. In 1983, the metre was redefined in the International System of Units (SI) as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second. As a result, the numerical value of c in metres per second is now fixed exactly by the definition of the metre.[1][2]
According to the theory of special relativity, c connects space and time in the unified structure of spacetime, and its square is the constant of proportionality between mass and energy (E = mc2).[3] In any inertial frame of reference, independently of the relative velocity of the emitter and the observer, c is the speed of all massless particles and associated fields, including all electromagnetic radiation in free space,[4] and it is believed to be the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves.[5][6] It is an upper bound on the speed at which energy, matter, and information can travel,[7][8] as surpassing it "would lead to the destruction of the essential relation between cause and effect."[9] Its finite value is a limiting factor in the speed of operation of electronic devices.[10]
The actual speed at which light propagates through transparent materials, such as glass or air, is less than c. The ratio between c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the refractive index n of the material (n = c / v). For example, for visible light the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at c / 1.5 ≈ 200,000 km/s; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1.0003, so the speed of light in air is very close to c.
Contents [hide]
1 Numerical value, notation and units
2 Fundamental role in physics
2.1 Upper limit on speeds
2.1.1 Faster-than-light observations and experiments
2.1.1.1 Galaxies moving faster than light
3 Propagation of light
3.1 In a medium
4 Practical effects of finiteness
4.1 Distance measurement
4.2 Astronomy
5 History
5.1 Ancient, medieval and early modern speculation
5.2 First measurement attempts
5.3 Early astronomical techniques
5.4 Earth-bound techniques
5.4.1 Cavity resonance
5.4.2 Heterodyne laser measurements
5.5 Redefinition of the metre
6 Modern astronomical measurements
7 Laboratory demonstration
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Historical references
10.3 Modern references
11 External links
[edit] Numerical value, notation and units
The speed of light is a dimensional physical constant, so its numerical value depends on the system of units used. In the International System of Units (SI), the metre is defined as the distance light travels in vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second (see "Redefinition of the metre", below). The effect of this definition is to fix the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 299,792,458 m/s.[Note 1][12][13][14]
The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by c, for "constant" or the Latin celeritas (meaning "swiftness"). Originally, the symbol V was used, introduced by Maxwell in 1865. In 1856, Weber and Kohlrausch had used c for a constant later shown to equal √2 times the speed of light in vacuum. In 1894, Drude redefined c with its modern meaning. Einstein used V in his original German-language papers on special relativity in 1905, but in 1907 he switched to c, which by then had become the standard symbol.[15]
Some authors use c for the speed of waves in any material medium, and c0 for the speed of light in vacuum.[16] This subscripted notation, which is endorsed in official SI literature,[1] has the same form as other related constants: namely, μ0 for the vacuum permeability or magnetic constant, ε0 for the vacuum permittivity or electric constant, and Z0 for the impedance of free space. This article uses c exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum.
In branches of physics in which the speed of light plays an important part, such as in relativity, it is common to use systems of natural units of measurement in which c = 1.[17][18] When such a system of measurement is used, the speed of light drops out of the equations of physics, because multiplication or division by 1 does not affect the result.
[edit] Fundamental role in physics
See also: Introduction to special relativity and Special relativity
The speed at which light propagates in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the light source and of the inertial frame of reference of the observer.[Note 2] The constancy of the speed of light was postulated by Albert Einstein in 1905, motivated by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous ether;[19] it has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments.[Note 3] [18][20] The theory of special relativity explores the consequences an invariant speed c and the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.[21][22] One consequence is that c is the speed at which all massless particles and waves, including light, must travel.
Event A precedes B in the red frame, is simultaneous with B in the green frame, and follows B in the blue frame.Special relativity has many counter-intuitive implications, but they have been verified in many experiments.[23] These include the equivalence of mass and energy (E = mc2), length contraction (moving objects shorten),[Note 4] and time dilation (moving clocks run slower). Length contraction and time dilation are negligible for speeds much slower than c, such as most everyday speeds, in which case special relativity is closely approximated by Galilean relativity.
Another counter-intuitive consequence of special relativity is the relativity of simultaneity: if the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by c, then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. Such events cannot have a causal relation.
The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as spacetime (with c relating the units of space and time), and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special symmetry called Lorentz invariance, whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter c.[26] Lorentz invariance has become an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories, such as quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics, the Standard Model of particle physics, and general relativity. As such, the parameter c is ubiquitous in modern physics, appearing in many contexts that may seem to be unrelated to light. For example, general relativity predicts that c is also the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves.[27]
In non-inertial frames of reference (gravitationally curved space or accelerated reference frames), the local speed of light is constant and equal to c, but the speed of light along a trajectory of finite length can differ from c, depending on how distances and times are defined.[28]
It is generally assumed in physics that fundamental constants such as c have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, various theories have suggested that the speed of light has changed over time.[29][30] Although no conclusive evidence for such theories has been found, they remain the subject of ongoing research.[31][32][33]
[edit] Upper limit on speeds
See also: Chronology protection conjecture
The Lorentz factor γ as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c.According to special relativity, the energy of an object with rest mass m and speed v is given by γmc2, where γ = (1 − v2/c2)−1/2 is the Lorentz factor. When v is zero, γ is equal to one, giving rise to the famous E = mc2 formula for mass-energy equivalence. The γ factor grows rapidly with v and approaches infinity as v approaches c. It would thus take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with non-zero rest mass.
More generally, it is normally impossible for any information or energy to travel faster than c. One reason is that according to the theory of special relativity, if something were travelling faster than c relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame,[Note 5] and causality would be violated.[Note 6][9] In such a frame of reference, an "effect" could be observed before its "cause". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded,[20] and would lead to paradoxes.[Note 7][35]
[edit] Faster-than-light observations and experiments
Main article: Faster-than-light
See also: Scharnhorst effect and Hartman effect
There are situations in which it may seem that matter, energy, or information travels at speeds greater than c, but they do not. For example, if a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object, the spot of light can move faster than c, but the only physical entities that are moving are the laser and its emitted light that travels at the speed c from the laser to the various positions of the spot. The movement of the spot will be delayed after the laser is moved because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object from the laser. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than c.[36] In neither case does any matter or information travel faster than light.[37]
In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, certain quantum effects may seem to be transmitted faster than c– and thus instantaneously in some frame – as in the EPR paradox. An example involves the quantum states of two particles that can be entangled. Until either of the particles is observed, they exist in a superposition of two quantum states. If the particles are separated and one particle's quantum state is observed, the other particle's quantum state is determined instantaneously (i.e., faster than light could travel from one particle to the other). However, it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed, so information cannot be transmitted in this manner.[37][38]
Another prediction of faster-than-light speeds occurs for quantum tunnelling and is called the Hartman effect.[39][40] However, no information can be sent using this effect.[41]
Closing speeds and proper speeds are examples of calculated speeds that may have value in excess of c but that do not represent the speed of an object as measured in a single inertial frame.
So-called superluminal motion is seen in certain astronomical objects,[42] such as the jets of radio galaxies and quasars. However, these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light: the apparent superluminal motion is a projection effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight: since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth, the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the instants at which the light rays were emitted.[43]
[edit] Galaxies moving faster than light
See also: Metric expansion of space and Hubble's Law
In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion through space, but rather to the expansion of space itself.[37] For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, this apparent recessional velocity becomes greater than the speed of light.
[edit] Propagation of light
In classical physics, light is described as a type of electromagnetic wave. The classical behaviour of the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations, which predict that the speed c with which electromagnetic waves (such as light) propagate through the vacuum is related to the electric constant ε0 and the magnetic constant μ0 by the equation c = 1/√ε0μ0.[44]
In modern quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED). In this theory, light is described by the fundamental excitations (or quanta) of the electromagnetic field, called photons. In QED, photons are massless particles and thus, according to special relativity, they must travel at the speed of light.
Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered. In such a theory, its speed would depend on its frequency, and the invariant speed c of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum.[28] To date no such effects have been observed,[45][46][47] putting stringent limits on the photon mass. The limit obtained depends on the used model: if the massive photon is described by Proca theory,[48] the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10−57 grams.[49] If photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism, the experimental upper limit is less sharp, m ≤ 10−14 eV/c2 [48] (roughly 2 × 10−47 g).
Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales, as predicted by some proposed theories of quantum gravity. In 2009, the observation of the spectrum of gamma-ray burst GRB 090510 did not find any difference in the speeds of photons of different energies, confirming that Lorentz invariance is verified at least down to the scale of the Planck length (lP = √ħG/c3 ≈ 1.6163×10−35 m) divided by 1.2.[50]
[edit] In a medium
See also: Refractive index and Dispersion (optics)
The light passing through a prism demonstrates refraction and, by the splitting of white light into a spectrum of colours, dispersion.When light enters materials, its energy is absorbed. In the case of transparent materials, this energy is quickly re-radiated. However, this absorption and re-radiation introduces a delay. As light propagates through dielectric material it undergoes continuous absorption and re-radiation. Therefore when the speed of light in a medium is said to be less than c, this should be read as the speed of energy propagation at the macroscopic level. At an atomic level, electromagnetic waves always travel at c in the empty space between atoms. Two factors influence this slowing; stronger absorption leading to shorter path length between each re-radiation cycle and longer delays. The slowing is therefore the product of these two factors.[51] The refractive index of a transparent material is defined as the ratio of c to the speed of light v in the material. Larger indexes of refraction indicate smaller speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity, polarization, or direction of propagation. In many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The refractive index of air is approximately 1.0003.[52] Denser media, such as water and glass, have refractive indexes of around 1.3 and 1.5 respectively for visible light. Diamond has a refractive index of about 2.4.
If the refractive index of a material depends on the frequency of the light passing through the medium, there exist two notions of the speed of light in the medium. The first is the speed of a wave of a single frequency f. This is called the phase velocity vp(f), and is related to the frequency dependent refractive index n(f) by
The second is the average velocity of a pulse of light consisting of different frequencies of light. This is called the group velocity and not only depends on the properties of the medium but also the distribution of frequencies in the pulse. A pulse with different group and phase velocities is said to undergo dispersion.
Certain materials have an exceptionally low group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called slow light. In 1999, a team of scientists led by Lene Hau were able to slow the speed of a light pulse to about 17 metres per second (61 km/h; 38 mph);[53] in 2001, they were able to momentarily stop a beam.[54] In 2003, scientists at Harvard University and the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow, succeeded in completely halting light by directing it into a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, the atoms of which, in Lukin's words, behaved "like tiny mirrors" due to an interference pattern in two "control" beams.[55][56]
It is also possible for the group velocity of light pulses to exceed c.[57] In an experiment in 2000, laser beams travelled for extremely short distances through caesium atoms with a group velocity of 300 times c.[58] It is not possible to transmit information faster than c by this means because the speed of information transfer cannot exceed the front velocity of the wave pulse, which is always less than c.[59] The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of any material, corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the attenuation coefficient, are linked by the Kramers–Kronig relations.
[edit] Practical effects of finiteness
The finiteness of the speed of light has implications for various sciences and technologies. For some it creates challenges or limits: for example, c, being the upper limit of the speed with which signals can be sent, provides a theoretical upper limit for the operating speed of microprocessors.[60] For others it creates opportunities, for example to measure distances.
[edit] Distance measurement
A beam of light is depicted travelling between the Earth and the Moon in the same time it takes light to scale the distance between them: 1.255 seconds at its mean orbital (surface to surface) distance. The relative sizes and separation of the Earth–Moon system are shown to scale.Radar systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip transit time multiplied by the speed of light. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver measures its distance to GPS satellites based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite, and from these distances calculates the receiver's position. Because light travels about 300,000 kilometres (186,000 miles) in one second, these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise. The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment, radar astronomy and the Deep Space Network determine distances to the Moon, planets and spacecraft, respectively, by measuring round-trip transit times.
[edit] Astronomy
The finite speed of light is important in astronomy. Due to the vast distances involved, it can take a very long time for light to travel from its source to Earth. For example, it requires 13 billion (13 × 109) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field images.[citation needed] Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that farther-away objects appear younger (due to the finite speed of light) allows astronomers to infer the evolution of stars, of galaxies, and of the universe itself.
Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light-years, especially in popular science publications.[61] A light‑year is the distance light travels in one year, around 9461 billion kilometres, 5879 billion miles, or 0.3066 parsecs. Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light‑years away.[62]
A celestial object will exhibit apparent motion due to the motion of the observer and the finiteness of the speed of light. This effect is called stellar aberration. For an observer on Earth, it can be up to 20 arcseconds due to the Earth's motion, and is taken into account for precise astronomical observations.[citation needed] Conversely, if a celestial object itself is moving, it will have moved a certain amount in time that the light needed to reach Earth. The correction needed to obtain the true (current) position is known as Light-time correction.[citation needed]
[edit] History
[edit] Ancient, medieval and early modern speculation
Until the early modern period, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece. Empedocles maintained that light was something in motion, and therefore must take some time to travel. Aristotle argued, to the contrary, that "light is due to the presence of something, but it is not a movement".[63] Euclid and Ptolemy advanced the emission theory of vision, where light is emitted from the eye, thus enabling sight. Based on that theory, Heron of Alexandria argued that the speed of light must be infinite because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.
Early Islamic philosophers initially agreed with the Aristotelian view that light had no speed of travel. In 1021, Islamic physicist Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) published the Book of Optics, in which he used experiments related to the camera obscura to support the now accepted intromission theory of vision, in which light moves from an object into the eye.[64] This led Alhazen to propose that light must therefore have a finite speed,[63][65][66] and that the speed of light is variable, decreasing in denser bodies.[66][67] He argued that light is a "substantial matter", the propagation of which requires time "even if this is hidden to our senses".[68]
Also in the 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī agreed that light has a finite speed, and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.[69] Roger Bacon argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle.[70][71] In the 1270s, Witelo considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in a vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.[72]
A comment on a verse in the Rigveda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana mentioned a speed of light equivalent to about 186,400 miles per second, which was apparently chosen so that light would encircle the Puranic universe in one day.[73][74] One scholar proclaimed this "the most astonishing 'blind hit' in the history of science!"[75] In 1574, the Ottoman astronomer and physicist Taqi al-Din concluded that the speed of light is finite, correctly explained refraction as the result of light traveling more slowly in denser bodies, and suggested that it would take a long time for light from distant stars to reach the Earth.[76][77]
In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler believed that the speed of light was infinite since empty space presents no obstacle to it. René Descartes argued that if the speed of light were finite, the Sun, Earth, and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a lunar eclipse. Since such misalignment had not been observed, Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite. Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite, his whole system of philosophy might be demolished.[63]
[edit] First measurement attempts
In 1629, Isaac Beeckman proposed an experiment in which a person would observe the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1638, Galileo Galilei proposed an experiment, with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier, to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away. He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instaneous or not, but concluded that if it weren't, it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid.[78][79] Galileo's experiment was carried out by the Accademia del Cimento of Florence in 1667, with the lanterns separated by about one mile, but no delay was observed. Based on the modern value of the speed of light, the actual delay in this experiment would be about 11 microseconds. Robert Hooke explained the negative results as Galileo had by pointing out that such observations did not establish the infinite speed of light, but only that the speed must be very great.
[edit] Early astronomical techniques
Main article: Rømer's determination of the speed of light
Rømer's observations of the occultations of Io from EarthThe first quantitative estimate of the speed of light was made in 1676 by Ole Christensen Rømer. He was one of a group of astronomers of the French Royal Academy of Sciences who were studying the motion of Jupiter's moons as a means of determining the longitude at a remote location.[Note 8][80][81] From the observation that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon Io appeared to be shorter when the earth was approaching Jupiter than when receding from it, he concluded that light travels at a finite speed, and was able to estimate that would take light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth's orbit. Christiaan Huygens combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of 220,000 km/s, 26% lower than the actual value.[82] The same effect was subsequently observed by Rømer for a "spot" rotating with the surface of Jupiter. Later observations also showed the effect with the three other Galilean moons, where it was more difficult to observe, thus laying to rest some further objections that had been raised.
Isaac Newton also accepted the finite speed. In his 1704 book Opticks he gives a value of "seven or eight minutes" for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth (the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds).[83]
Aberration of light: light from location 1 will appear to be from location 2 for a moving telescope due to the finite speed of light.Between 1725 and 1728, James Bradley, while searching for stellar parallax, observed the apparent motion of the star Gamma Draconis depending on the season of the year. He realized that the motion (about 39 arcseconds) could not be a parallax (it was in the wrong direction at any given time) and, after ruling out several other possible causes, produced the theory of the aberration of light,[84] a vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from the star and the velocity of the Earth around its orbit. The effect is that an observer on the Earth will see the light coming from a slightly different angle than the "true" value which, for a star in the sky, means a slightly different position. The effect is greatest near the orbital pole which, for the Earth, is close to γ Draconis. Bradley was able to predict the aberration for several other stars, and confirm his predictions by observation.[84] His observations on γ Draconis gave a ratio of the speed of light to the mean linear speed of the Earth's orbital motion: Bradley's figure was that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.[84]
[edit] Earth-bound techniques
See also: Fizeau–Foucault apparatus
Diagram of the Fizeau apparatusThe first successful entirely earthbound measurement of the speed of light was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau's experiment was conceptually similar to those proposed by Beeckman and Galileo. A beam of light was directed at a mirror 8 kilometres (5 mi) away. On the way from the source to the mirror, the beam passed through a rotating cog wheel. At a certain rate of rotation, the beam could pass through one gap on the way out and another on the way back, but at slightly higher or lower rates, the beam would strike a tooth and not pass through the wheel. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, the speed of light could be calculated. Fizeau reported the speed of light as 315,000 km/s. Léon Foucault improved on Fizeau's method by replacing the cogwheel with a rotating mirror. Foucault's estimate, published in 1862, was 298,000 km/s.[85]
In 1879, Albert Michelson performed a similar experiment at the US Naval Academy. He measured the speed of light in air to be 299,864±51 kilometres per second, and estimated the speed of light in vacuum as 299,940 km/s, or 186,380 mi/s.[86]
In 1887, Michelson and Edward Morley performed an experiment to detect differences in the speed of light due to the Earth's motion through the luminiferous ether, at what is now Case Western Reserve University.[87] Its failure is generally considered to be the first strong evidence against the ether theory.
[edit] Cavity resonance
Electromagnetic standing waves in a cavity.During World War II, the development of the cavity resonance wavemeter for use in radar, together with precision timing methods, opened the way to laboratory-based measurements of the speed of light. In 1946, Louis Essen and A.C. Gordon-Smith used a microwave cavity of precisely known dimensions to establish the frequency for a variety of normal modes of microwaves. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory, knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light.[88][89]
The Essen–Gordon-Smith result, 299,792±9 km/s, was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques.[89] By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of 299,792.5±3.0 km/s.[90]
[edit] Heterodyne laser measurements
An idealized interferometric determination of wavelength obtained by looking at interference fringes between two coherent beams recombined after travelling different distances. Top: Constructive interference (in phase); If the difference in path length is a multiple of a wavelength, the recombined beams support one another and reconstitute the original beam. Bottom: Destructive interference (out of phase); If the two paths differ by half a wavelength, the recombined beams are out of phase and cancel each other. The bottom panel in the figure suggests the path length has been increased by half a wavelength by moving the right-hand point of reflection further out.An alternative to the cavity resonator method to find the wavelength for determining the speed of light is to use a form of interferometer, indicated schematically in the figure.[91] A coherent light beam with a known frequency (f), as from a laser, is split to follow two paths and then recombined. By carefully changing the path length and observing the interference pattern, the wavelength of the light (λ) can be determined, which is related to the speed of light by the equation c = λf.
The main difficulty in measuring c through interferometry is to measure the frequency of light in or near the optical region; such frequencies are too high to be measured with conventional methods. This was first overcome by a group at the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) laboratories in Boulder, Colorado, in 1972.[92] By a series of photodiodes and specially constructed metal–insulator–metal diodes, they succeeded in linking the frequency of a methane-stabilized infrared laser to the frequency of the caesium transition used in atomic clocks (nearly 10,000 times lower, in the microwave region).[93] Their results for the frequency and wavelength of the infrared laser, and the resulting value for c, were:
f = 88.376181627±0.000000050 THz;
λ = 3.392231376±0.000000012 µm;
c = 299,792,456.2±1.1 m/s;
nearly a hundred times more precise than previous measurements of the speed of light.[92][93]
[edit] Redefinition of the metre
See also: Metre
The 1972 measurement of the speed of light, with a relative uncertainty of 4×10−9, was not only a feat of experimental precision, but also revealed a limiting factor to how precisely the speed of light could be measured by any technique: almost all the remaining uncertainty in the value of the speed of light was due to uncertainty in the length of the metre.[92][93][94] Since 1960, the metre had been defined as a given number of wavelengths of the light of one of the spectral lines of a krypton lamp,[Note 9] but it turned out that the chosen spectral line was not perfectly symmetrical.[93] This made its wavelength, and hence the length of the metre, uncertain, because the definition did not specify what point on the line profile (e.g., its maximum-intensity point or its centre of gravity) it referred to.[Note 10] By analogy with a metal measuring rod, it was as if the rod were slightly fuzzy at each end—although comparable fuzziness at the ends of a one-metre rod would be apparent only at the atomic scale.
To get round this problem, in 1975, the 15th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) recommended using 299,792,458 metres per second for "the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves in vacuum".[94] Based on this recommendation, the 17th CGPM in 1983 redefined the metre as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1⁄299,792,458 of a second".[96]
The effect of this definition gives the speed of light the exact value 299,792,458 m/s, which is nearly the same as the value 299,792,456.2±1.1 m/s obtained in the 1972 experiment. The CGPM chose this value to minimise any change in the length of the metre.[97][98] As a result, in the SI system of units the speed of light is now a defined constant[14] and no longer something to be measured.[93] Improved experimental techniques do not affect the value of the speed of light in SI units, but do result in a more precise realisation of the SI metre.[99][100]
[edit] Modern astronomical measurements
As described above, an important consideration in measuring the speed of light with high accuracy is using a precise standard of length. The SI unit of length is determined by c through the 1983 definition of the metre. Therefore, to measure the speed of light, one must use a standard of length that is not based on the SI metre and that is defined independently of c.
The astronomical unit is one such standard. It is approximately equal to the average distance between the Earth and the Sun.[Note 11] The "light time per unit distance"—the inverse of c, expressed in seconds per astronomical unit—can be measured by comparing the time taken for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a best fit value for the light time per unit distance is obtained. As of 2009[update], the best estimate, as approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is:[102][103][104]
light time per unit distance: 499.004783836(10) s
c = 0.00200398880410(4) AU/s = 173.144632674(3) AU/day
The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (0.02 × 10−9), equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry.[105][106]
[edit] Laboratory demonstration
With modern oscilloscopes having time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror, although this method is less precise than either the cavity resonator or the interferometric methods. This technique is used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.[107][108][109]
Source: Wikipedia
Thursday, January 28, 2010
MASSAGISTA COM FORMAÇÃO ATENDE SENHORAS NA COSTA DA CAPARICA
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Eduardo Pinto
Música pacífica.
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Eduardo Pinto
Adam Smith
Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Adam Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.[1][2]
Smith studied moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and Oxford University. After graduating he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life he took a tutoring position which allowed him to travel throughout Europe where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations (mainly from his lecture notes) which was published in 1776. He died in 1790.
Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life
1.2 Formal education
1.3 Teaching and early writings
1.4 Tutoring and travels
1.5 Later years and writings
2 Personality and beliefs
2.1 Character
2.2 Religious views
3 Published works
3.1 The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)
3.2 The Wealth of Nations (1776)
3.3 Other works
4 Legacy
4.1 Portraits, monuments and banknotes
4.2 As a symbol of free market economics
5 Footnotes
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] Biography
[edit] Early life
Adam Smith was born to Margaret Douglas at Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. His father, also named Adam Smith, was a lawyer, civil servant, and widower who married Margaret Douglas in 1720 and died six months before Smith was born.[3] Although the exact date of Smith's birth is unknown, his baptism was recorded on 16 June 1723 at Kirkcaldy.[4] Though few events in Smith's early childhood are known, Scottish journalist and biographer of Smith John Rae recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of four and eventually released when others went to rescue him.[note 1] Smith was particularly close to his mother, who likely encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.[6] He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy – characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period" – from 1729 to 1737.[5] There he studied Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.[6]
[edit] Formal education
A commemorative plaque for Adam Smith is located at Smith's home town of Kirkcaldy.Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson.[6] Here he developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740, Smith was awarded the Snell exhibition and left the University of Glasgow to attend Balliol College, Oxford.[7]
Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, and found his experience at the latter to be intellectually stifling.[8] In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.[5][9][10] According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."[11] Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Oxford library.[12] When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.[13] Near the end of his time at Oxford, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.[14] He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.[14][15]
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England. Smith had originally intended to study theology and enter the clergy, but his subsequent learning, especially from the skeptical writings of David Hume, persuaded him to take a different route.[10]
[edit] Teaching and early writings
Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames.[16] His lecture topics included rhetoric and belles-lettres, and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty". While Smith was not adept at public speaking, his lectures met with success.[17]
David Hume was a friend and contemporary of Adam Smith.In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. The alignments of opinion that can be found within their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion indicate that they shared a closer intellectual alliance and friendship than with the others who were to play important roles during the emergence of what has come to be known as the Scottish Enlightenment.[18]
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the Chair of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position.[17] He would continue academic production for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honourable period [of his life]".[19] His lectures covered the fields of ethics, rhetoric, jurisprudence, political economy, and "police and revenue".
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. He bases his explanation not on a special "moral sense", as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on sympathy. Smith's popularity greatly increased due to the The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and as a result, many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.[20]
After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals. The development of his ideas on political economy can be observed from the lecture notes taken down by a student in 1763, and from what William Robert Scott described as an early version of part of The Wealth of Nations.[21] For example, Smith lectured that labor—rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver—is the cause of increase in national wealth.[20]
François Quesnay, one of the leaders of the Physiocratic school of thoughtIn 1762, the academic senate of the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained a lucrative offer from Charles Townshend (who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume) to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith subsequently resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position. Because he resigned in the middle of the term, Smith attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students, but they refused.[22]
[edit] Tutoring and travels
Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Henry Scott while teaching him subjects including proper Polish.[22] Smith was paid £300 per year plus expenses along with £300 per year pension, which was roughly twice his former income as a teacher.[22] Smith first traveled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half.[22] According to accounts, Smith found Toulouse to be very boring, and he wrote to Hume that he "had begun to write a book in order to pass away the time".[22] After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva. While in Geneva, Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.[23] After staying in Geneva, the party went to Paris.
While in Paris, Smith came to know intellectual leaders such as Benjamin Franklin,[24] Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius and, in particular, Francois Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school, whose academic products he respected greatly.[25] The physiocrats believed that wealth came from production and not from the attainment of precious metals, which was adverse to mercantilist thought. They also believed that agriculture tended to produce wealth and that merchants and manufacturers did not.[24] While Smith did not embrace all of the physiocrats' ideas, he did say that physiocracy was "with all its imperfections [perhaps] the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy".[26]
[edit] Later years and writings
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.[26] Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus.[27] There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes himself, Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education.[28] In May 1773 Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London,[29] and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775.[30] The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out the first edition in only six months.[31]
In 1778 Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate.[32] Five years later, he became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,[33] and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow.[34] He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard.[35] On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.[36]
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton.[37] Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.[38] He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.[37]
[edit] Personality and beliefs
[edit] Character
James Tassie's enamel paste medallion of Smith provided the model for many engravings and portraits which remain today.[39]Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death, at his own request.[38] He never married[40] and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.[41]
Contemporary accounts describe Smith as an eccentric but benevolent intellectual, comically absent minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".[42] He was known to talk to himself, and had occasional spells of imaginary illness.[36]
Smith is often described as a prototypical absent-minded professor.[43] He is reported to have had books and papers stacked up in his study, with a habit he developed during childhood of speaking to himself and smiling in rapt conversation with invisible companions.[43]
Various anecdotes have discussed his absentminded nature. In one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he had to be removed.[44] Another episode records that he put bread and butter into a teapot, drank the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. In another example, Smith went out walking and daydreaming in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside town before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.[43][44]
Portrait of Adam Smith by John Kay, 1790Smith is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow. One author stated that Smith "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment".[10] Smith is reported to have acknowledged his looks at one point saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."[10] Smith "never" sat for portraits [45], so depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory, with rare exceptions. The most famous examples were a profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay.[46] The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.[47]
[edit] Religious views
There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Adam Smith's religious views. Smith's father had a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland.[48] Smith may have gone to England with the intention of a career in the Church of England: this is controversial and depends on the status of the Snell Exhibition[clarification needed]. At Oxford, Smith rejected Christianity and it is generally believed that he returned to Scotland as a deist.[49]
Economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist,[50] stating that while Smith may have referred to the "Great Architect of the Universe", other scholars have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God".[51] He based this on analysis of a remark in The Wealth of Nations where Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature" such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals" has led men to "enquire into their causes". Coase notes Smith's observation that "[s]uperstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods". Smith's distant friend and colleague David Hume, with whom he agreed on most matters, was described by contemporaries as an atheist, although there is some debate about the exact nature of his views among modern philosophers.[52]
In a letter to William Strahan, Smith's account of Hume's courage and tranquility in the face of death aroused violent public controversy,[53] since it contradicted the assumption, widespread among orthodox believers, that an untroubled death was impossible without the consolation of religious belief.[54]
[edit] Published works
Adam Smith published a large body of works throughout his life, some of which have shaped the field of economics. Smith's first book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments was written in 1759.[55] It provided the ethical, philosophical, psychological, and methodological underpinnings to Smith's later works, including An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937), Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795), Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896), and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.
[edit] The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)
Main article: The Theory of Moral Sentiments
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued to revise the work throughout his life, making extensive revisions to the final (6th) edition shortly before his death in 1790.[note 2] Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it has been reported that Smith himself "always considered his Theory of Moral Sentiments a much superior work to his Wealth of Nations".[57] P. J. O'Rourke, author of the commentary On The Wealth of Nations (2007), has agreed, calling Theory of Moral Sentiments "the better book".[58] It was in this work that Smith first referred to the "invisible hand" to describe the apparent benefits to society of people behaving in their own interests.[59]
In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith critically examined the moral thinking of the time and suggested that conscience arises from social relationships.[60] His aim in the work is to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations toward self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior. Haakonssen writes that in Smith's theory, "Society is ... the mirror in which one catches sight of oneself, morally speaking."[61]
In part because Theory of Moral Sentiments emphasizes sympathy for others while Wealth of Nations famously emphasizes the role of self interest, some scholars have perceived a conflict between these works. As one economic historian observed: "Many writers, including the present author at an early stage of his study of Smith, have found these two works in some measure basically inconsistent."[62] But in recent years most scholars of Adam Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. In Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing the Wealth of Nations and Theory of Moral Sentiments as presenting incompatible views of human nature, most Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. The Wealth of Nations draws on situations where man's morality is likely to play a smaller role—such as the laborer involved in pin-making—whereas the Theory of Moral Sentiments focuses on situations where man's morality is likely to play a dominant role among more personal exchanges.
The site where Adam Smith wrote the Wealth of Nations[edit] The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Main article: The Wealth of Nations
The Wealth of Nations expounds that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called "invisible hand".[59] Smith opposed any form of economic concentration because it distorts the market's natural ability to establish a price that provides a fair return on land, labor, and capital. He advanced the idea that a market economy would produce a satisfactory outcome for both buyers and sellers, and would optimally allocate society's resources.[63] The image of the invisible hand was previously employed by Smith in Theory of Moral Sentiments, but it has its original use in his essay, "The History of Astronomy". Smith believed that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society: "by pursuing his own interest, [the individual] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he intends to promote it."[64] Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of monopolies.
An often-quoted passage from The Wealth of Nations is:[65]
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.
The first page of the Wealth of Nations, 1776 London editionValue theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it" as influenced by its scarcity. Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.[66] Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of markets to move to long-run equilibrium.
Adam Smith's advocacy of self-interest based economic exchange did not, however, preclude for him issues of fairness and justice. In Asia, Europeans "by different arts of oppression..have reduced the population of several of the Moluccas,"[67] he wrote, while "the savage injustice of the Europeans" arriving in America, "rendered an event, which ought to have been beneficial to all, ruinous and destructive to several of those unfortunate countries."[68] The Native Americans, "far from having ever injured the people of Europe, had received the first adventurers with every mark of kindness and hospitality." However, "superiority of force" was "so great on the side of the Europeans, that they were enabled to commit with impunity every sort of injustice in those remote countries."[69]
Smith also believed that a division of labour would effect a great increase in production. One example he used was the making of pins. One worker could probably make only twenty pins per day. However, if ten people divided up the eighteen steps required to make a pin, they could make a combined amount of 48,000 pins in one day. However, Smith's views on division of labour are not unambiguously positive, and are typically mis-characterized. Smith says of the division of labour:
"In the progress of the division of labour, the employment of the far greater part of those who live by labour, that is, of the great body of the people, comes to be confined to a few very simple operations, frequently only one or two. ...The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects too are, perhaps, always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding, or to exercise his invention in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become. ...His dexterity at his own particular trade seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expense of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. ...this is the state into which the labouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it."[70]
On labor relations, Smith noted "severity" of laws against worker actions, and contrasted the masters' "clamour" against workers associations, with associations and collusions of the masters which "are never heard by the people" though such actions are "always" and "everywhere" taking place:
"We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combinations of masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform, combination, not to raise the wages of labour above their actual rate...Masters, too, sometimes enter into particular combinations to sink the wages of labour even below this rate. These are always conducted with the utmost silence and secrecy till the moment of execution; and when the workmen yield, as they sometimes do without resistance, though severely felt by them, they are never heard of by other people." In contrast, when workers combine, "the masters..never cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate, and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted with so much severity against the combination of servants, labourers, and journeymen."[71]
Adam Smith's burial place in Canongate Kirkyard[edit] Other works
Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith.
Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).
[edit] Legacy
A statue of Adam Smith on Edinburgh's Royal Mile built through private donations and organised by the Adam Smith InstituteThe Wealth of Nations, one of the earliest attempts to study the rise of industry and commercial development in Europe, was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity and well-being. It also provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for free trade and capitalism, greatly influencing the writings of later economists. Smith is often cited as the father of modern economics.[72] Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style was often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.
George Stigler attributes to Smith the central proposition of mainstream economic theory, namely that an individual will invest a resource, for example, land or labour, so as to earn the highest possible return on it. Consequently, all uses of the resource should yield a risk-adjusted equal rate of return; otherwise resource reallocation would result.
On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along.” (Schumpeter History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, p 185)
Classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value', later Marxian economics descends from classical economics also using Smith's labour theories in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.[73][74] The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding of mainstream economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. Smith is often cited not only as the conceptual builder of free markets in capitalism but also as a main contributor to communist theory, via his influence on Marx.
The Adam Smith Theatre in KirkcaldyA body of theory later termed 'neoclassical economics' or 'marginalism' formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term 'economics' was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for 'economic science' and a substitute for the earlier, broader term 'political economy' used by Smith.[75][76] This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.[77] Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.[78]
The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976 Adam Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, his opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire was emphasised, as were his statements about high wages for the poor, and his views that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher.[79]
[edit] Portraits, monuments and banknotes
This £20 note was issued by the Bank of England and features Adam Smith.
A heroic depiction of Smith by Patric Parc, 1845, in Kelvingrove Museum, GlasgowAdam Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland,[80][81] and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote.[82]
A large-scale memorial of Smith was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a 10 feet (3.0 m)-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross.[83] 20th century sculptor Jim Sanborn (best known for creating the Kryptos sculpture at the United States Central Intelligence Agency) has created multiple pieces which feature Adam Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text but represented in binary code.[84] At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is Adam Smith's Spinning Top.[85][86] Another Adam Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University.[87]
Adam Smith's Spinning Top, sculpture by American artist Jim Sanborn at Cleveland State University[edit] As a symbol of free market economics
Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free market policies as the founder of free market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute, Adam Smith Society[88] and the Australian Adam Smith Club,[89] and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.[90]
Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions". Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history".[91] P. J. O'Rourke describes Adam Smith as the "founder of free market economics".[92]
However, other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism ... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior".[93]
Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Adam Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics".[94] In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:
"The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state." [95]
Smith even specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state among them luxury goods taxes and tax on rent. He believed that tax laws should be as transparent as possible and that each individual should pay a "certain amount, and not arbitrary," in addition to paying this tax at the time "most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it" [96]
Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I. Included in his requirements of a government were to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy writes, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defense and regulate banking. It was the role of the government to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. he supported public education and religious institutions as providing general benefit to the society. Finally he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He even states that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge."[97] In addition, he was in favor of retaliatory tariffs and believed that they would eventually bring down the price of goods. He even stated in Wealth of Nations, "The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods."[98]
Noam Chomsky has argued[note 3] that several aspects of Smith's thought have been misrepresented and falsified by contemporary ideology, including Smith’s reasons for supporting markets and Smith’s views on corporations. Chomsky argues that Smith supported markets in the belief that they would lead to equality, and that Smith opposed wage labor and corporations.[99] Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty") but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire.[100]
Economist Daniel Klein believes using the term "free market economics" or "free market economist" to identify the ideas of Adam Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity.[101][102]
Economist David Ricardo set straight some of the misunderstandings about Adam Smith’s thoughts on free market. Most people still fall victim to the thinking that Adam Smith was a free market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Adam Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Adam Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood it would be unwilling to surrender the government help.[103]
Adam Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Adam Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defense.[103]
[edit] Footnotes
^ "In his fourth year, while on a visit to his grandfather's house at Strathendry on the banks of the Leven, [Smith] was stolen by a passing band of gypsies, and for a time could not be found. But presently a gentleman arrived who had met a gypsy woman a few miles down the road carrying a child that was crying piteously. Scouts were immediately dispatched in the direction indicated, and they came upon the woman in Leslie wood. As soon as she saw them she threw her burden down and escaped, and the child was brought back to his mother. [Smith] would have made, I fear, a poor gypsy."[5]
^ The 6 editions of Theory of Moral Sentiments were published in 1759, 1761, 1767, 1774, 1781, and 1790 respectively.[56]
^ See ch. 2,5,6 and 10 of his Understanding Power, New Press (February 2002), along with his Year 501: The Conquest Continues, primarily ch. 1, South End Press, 1993.
Source: Wikipedia
Smith studied moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and Oxford University. After graduating he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life he took a tutoring position which allowed him to travel throughout Europe where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations (mainly from his lecture notes) which was published in 1776. He died in 1790.
Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life
1.2 Formal education
1.3 Teaching and early writings
1.4 Tutoring and travels
1.5 Later years and writings
2 Personality and beliefs
2.1 Character
2.2 Religious views
3 Published works
3.1 The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)
3.2 The Wealth of Nations (1776)
3.3 Other works
4 Legacy
4.1 Portraits, monuments and banknotes
4.2 As a symbol of free market economics
5 Footnotes
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] Biography
[edit] Early life
Adam Smith was born to Margaret Douglas at Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. His father, also named Adam Smith, was a lawyer, civil servant, and widower who married Margaret Douglas in 1720 and died six months before Smith was born.[3] Although the exact date of Smith's birth is unknown, his baptism was recorded on 16 June 1723 at Kirkcaldy.[4] Though few events in Smith's early childhood are known, Scottish journalist and biographer of Smith John Rae recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of four and eventually released when others went to rescue him.[note 1] Smith was particularly close to his mother, who likely encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions.[6] He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy – characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period" – from 1729 to 1737.[5] There he studied Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.[6]
[edit] Formal education
A commemorative plaque for Adam Smith is located at Smith's home town of Kirkcaldy.Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson.[6] Here he developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740, Smith was awarded the Snell exhibition and left the University of Glasgow to attend Balliol College, Oxford.[7]
Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, and found his experience at the latter to be intellectually stifling.[8] In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it.[5][9][10] According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework."[11] Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Oxford library.[12] When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters.[13] Near the end of his time at Oxford, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown.[14] He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.[14][15]
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England. Smith had originally intended to study theology and enter the clergy, but his subsequent learning, especially from the skeptical writings of David Hume, persuaded him to take a different route.[10]
[edit] Teaching and early writings
Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames.[16] His lecture topics included rhetoric and belles-lettres, and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty". While Smith was not adept at public speaking, his lectures met with success.[17]
David Hume was a friend and contemporary of Adam Smith.In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. The alignments of opinion that can be found within their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion indicate that they shared a closer intellectual alliance and friendship than with the others who were to play important roles during the emergence of what has come to be known as the Scottish Enlightenment.[18]
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the Chair of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position.[17] He would continue academic production for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honourable period [of his life]".[19] His lectures covered the fields of ethics, rhetoric, jurisprudence, political economy, and "police and revenue".
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. He bases his explanation not on a special "moral sense", as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on sympathy. Smith's popularity greatly increased due to the The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and as a result, many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith.[20]
After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals. The development of his ideas on political economy can be observed from the lecture notes taken down by a student in 1763, and from what William Robert Scott described as an early version of part of The Wealth of Nations.[21] For example, Smith lectured that labor—rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver—is the cause of increase in national wealth.[20]
François Quesnay, one of the leaders of the Physiocratic school of thoughtIn 1762, the academic senate of the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained a lucrative offer from Charles Townshend (who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume) to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith subsequently resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position. Because he resigned in the middle of the term, Smith attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students, but they refused.[22]
[edit] Tutoring and travels
Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Henry Scott while teaching him subjects including proper Polish.[22] Smith was paid £300 per year plus expenses along with £300 per year pension, which was roughly twice his former income as a teacher.[22] Smith first traveled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half.[22] According to accounts, Smith found Toulouse to be very boring, and he wrote to Hume that he "had begun to write a book in order to pass away the time".[22] After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva. While in Geneva, Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.[23] After staying in Geneva, the party went to Paris.
While in Paris, Smith came to know intellectual leaders such as Benjamin Franklin,[24] Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius and, in particular, Francois Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school, whose academic products he respected greatly.[25] The physiocrats believed that wealth came from production and not from the attainment of precious metals, which was adverse to mercantilist thought. They also believed that agriculture tended to produce wealth and that merchants and manufacturers did not.[24] While Smith did not embrace all of the physiocrats' ideas, he did say that physiocracy was "with all its imperfections [perhaps] the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy".[26]
[edit] Later years and writings
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter.[26] Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus.[27] There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes himself, Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education.[28] In May 1773 Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London,[29] and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775.[30] The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out the first edition in only six months.[31]
In 1778 Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate.[32] Five years later, he became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,[33] and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow.[34] He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard.[35] On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.[36]
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton.[37] Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.[38] He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.[37]
[edit] Personality and beliefs
[edit] Character
James Tassie's enamel paste medallion of Smith provided the model for many engravings and portraits which remain today.[39]Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death, at his own request.[38] He never married[40] and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.[41]
Contemporary accounts describe Smith as an eccentric but benevolent intellectual, comically absent minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait and a smile of "inexpressible benignity".[42] He was known to talk to himself, and had occasional spells of imaginary illness.[36]
Smith is often described as a prototypical absent-minded professor.[43] He is reported to have had books and papers stacked up in his study, with a habit he developed during childhood of speaking to himself and smiling in rapt conversation with invisible companions.[43]
Various anecdotes have discussed his absentminded nature. In one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he had to be removed.[44] Another episode records that he put bread and butter into a teapot, drank the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. In another example, Smith went out walking and daydreaming in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside town before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.[43][44]
Portrait of Adam Smith by John Kay, 1790Smith is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow. One author stated that Smith "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment".[10] Smith is reported to have acknowledged his looks at one point saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books."[10] Smith "never" sat for portraits [45], so depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory, with rare exceptions. The most famous examples were a profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay.[46] The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.[47]
[edit] Religious views
There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Adam Smith's religious views. Smith's father had a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland.[48] Smith may have gone to England with the intention of a career in the Church of England: this is controversial and depends on the status of the Snell Exhibition[clarification needed]. At Oxford, Smith rejected Christianity and it is generally believed that he returned to Scotland as a deist.[49]
Economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist,[50] stating that while Smith may have referred to the "Great Architect of the Universe", other scholars have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God".[51] He based this on analysis of a remark in The Wealth of Nations where Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature" such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals" has led men to "enquire into their causes". Coase notes Smith's observation that "[s]uperstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods". Smith's distant friend and colleague David Hume, with whom he agreed on most matters, was described by contemporaries as an atheist, although there is some debate about the exact nature of his views among modern philosophers.[52]
In a letter to William Strahan, Smith's account of Hume's courage and tranquility in the face of death aroused violent public controversy,[53] since it contradicted the assumption, widespread among orthodox believers, that an untroubled death was impossible without the consolation of religious belief.[54]
[edit] Published works
Adam Smith published a large body of works throughout his life, some of which have shaped the field of economics. Smith's first book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments was written in 1759.[55] It provided the ethical, philosophical, psychological, and methodological underpinnings to Smith's later works, including An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937), Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795), Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896), and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.
[edit] The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)
Main article: The Theory of Moral Sentiments
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued to revise the work throughout his life, making extensive revisions to the final (6th) edition shortly before his death in 1790.[note 2] Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it has been reported that Smith himself "always considered his Theory of Moral Sentiments a much superior work to his Wealth of Nations".[57] P. J. O'Rourke, author of the commentary On The Wealth of Nations (2007), has agreed, calling Theory of Moral Sentiments "the better book".[58] It was in this work that Smith first referred to the "invisible hand" to describe the apparent benefits to society of people behaving in their own interests.[59]
In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith critically examined the moral thinking of the time and suggested that conscience arises from social relationships.[60] His aim in the work is to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations toward self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior. Haakonssen writes that in Smith's theory, "Society is ... the mirror in which one catches sight of oneself, morally speaking."[61]
In part because Theory of Moral Sentiments emphasizes sympathy for others while Wealth of Nations famously emphasizes the role of self interest, some scholars have perceived a conflict between these works. As one economic historian observed: "Many writers, including the present author at an early stage of his study of Smith, have found these two works in some measure basically inconsistent."[62] But in recent years most scholars of Adam Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. In Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing the Wealth of Nations and Theory of Moral Sentiments as presenting incompatible views of human nature, most Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. The Wealth of Nations draws on situations where man's morality is likely to play a smaller role—such as the laborer involved in pin-making—whereas the Theory of Moral Sentiments focuses on situations where man's morality is likely to play a dominant role among more personal exchanges.
The site where Adam Smith wrote the Wealth of Nations[edit] The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Main article: The Wealth of Nations
The Wealth of Nations expounds that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called "invisible hand".[59] Smith opposed any form of economic concentration because it distorts the market's natural ability to establish a price that provides a fair return on land, labor, and capital. He advanced the idea that a market economy would produce a satisfactory outcome for both buyers and sellers, and would optimally allocate society's resources.[63] The image of the invisible hand was previously employed by Smith in Theory of Moral Sentiments, but it has its original use in his essay, "The History of Astronomy". Smith believed that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society: "by pursuing his own interest, [the individual] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he intends to promote it."[64] Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of monopolies.
An often-quoted passage from The Wealth of Nations is:[65]
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.
The first page of the Wealth of Nations, 1776 London editionValue theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it" as influenced by its scarcity. Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.[66] Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of markets to move to long-run equilibrium.
Adam Smith's advocacy of self-interest based economic exchange did not, however, preclude for him issues of fairness and justice. In Asia, Europeans "by different arts of oppression..have reduced the population of several of the Moluccas,"[67] he wrote, while "the savage injustice of the Europeans" arriving in America, "rendered an event, which ought to have been beneficial to all, ruinous and destructive to several of those unfortunate countries."[68] The Native Americans, "far from having ever injured the people of Europe, had received the first adventurers with every mark of kindness and hospitality." However, "superiority of force" was "so great on the side of the Europeans, that they were enabled to commit with impunity every sort of injustice in those remote countries."[69]
Smith also believed that a division of labour would effect a great increase in production. One example he used was the making of pins. One worker could probably make only twenty pins per day. However, if ten people divided up the eighteen steps required to make a pin, they could make a combined amount of 48,000 pins in one day. However, Smith's views on division of labour are not unambiguously positive, and are typically mis-characterized. Smith says of the division of labour:
"In the progress of the division of labour, the employment of the far greater part of those who live by labour, that is, of the great body of the people, comes to be confined to a few very simple operations, frequently only one or two. ...The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects too are, perhaps, always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding, or to exercise his invention in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become. ...His dexterity at his own particular trade seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expense of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. ...this is the state into which the labouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it."[70]
On labor relations, Smith noted "severity" of laws against worker actions, and contrasted the masters' "clamour" against workers associations, with associations and collusions of the masters which "are never heard by the people" though such actions are "always" and "everywhere" taking place:
"We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combinations of masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform, combination, not to raise the wages of labour above their actual rate...Masters, too, sometimes enter into particular combinations to sink the wages of labour even below this rate. These are always conducted with the utmost silence and secrecy till the moment of execution; and when the workmen yield, as they sometimes do without resistance, though severely felt by them, they are never heard of by other people." In contrast, when workers combine, "the masters..never cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate, and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted with so much severity against the combination of servants, labourers, and journeymen."[71]
Adam Smith's burial place in Canongate Kirkyard[edit] Other works
Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith.
Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).
[edit] Legacy
A statue of Adam Smith on Edinburgh's Royal Mile built through private donations and organised by the Adam Smith InstituteThe Wealth of Nations, one of the earliest attempts to study the rise of industry and commercial development in Europe, was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity and well-being. It also provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for free trade and capitalism, greatly influencing the writings of later economists. Smith is often cited as the father of modern economics.[72] Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style was often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.
George Stigler attributes to Smith the central proposition of mainstream economic theory, namely that an individual will invest a resource, for example, land or labour, so as to earn the highest possible return on it. Consequently, all uses of the resource should yield a risk-adjusted equal rate of return; otherwise resource reallocation would result.
On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along.” (Schumpeter History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, p 185)
Classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value', later Marxian economics descends from classical economics also using Smith's labour theories in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.[73][74] The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding of mainstream economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. Smith is often cited not only as the conceptual builder of free markets in capitalism but also as a main contributor to communist theory, via his influence on Marx.
The Adam Smith Theatre in KirkcaldyA body of theory later termed 'neoclassical economics' or 'marginalism' formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term 'economics' was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for 'economic science' and a substitute for the earlier, broader term 'political economy' used by Smith.[75][76] This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.[77] Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.[78]
The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976 Adam Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, his opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire was emphasised, as were his statements about high wages for the poor, and his views that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher.[79]
[edit] Portraits, monuments and banknotes
This £20 note was issued by the Bank of England and features Adam Smith.
A heroic depiction of Smith by Patric Parc, 1845, in Kelvingrove Museum, GlasgowAdam Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland,[80][81] and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote.[82]
A large-scale memorial of Smith was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a 10 feet (3.0 m)-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross.[83] 20th century sculptor Jim Sanborn (best known for creating the Kryptos sculpture at the United States Central Intelligence Agency) has created multiple pieces which feature Adam Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text but represented in binary code.[84] At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is Adam Smith's Spinning Top.[85][86] Another Adam Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University.[87]
Adam Smith's Spinning Top, sculpture by American artist Jim Sanborn at Cleveland State University[edit] As a symbol of free market economics
Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free market policies as the founder of free market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute, Adam Smith Society[88] and the Australian Adam Smith Club,[89] and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.[90]
Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions". Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history".[91] P. J. O'Rourke describes Adam Smith as the "founder of free market economics".[92]
However, other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism ... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior".[93]
Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Adam Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics".[94] In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:
"The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state." [95]
Smith even specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state among them luxury goods taxes and tax on rent. He believed that tax laws should be as transparent as possible and that each individual should pay a "certain amount, and not arbitrary," in addition to paying this tax at the time "most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it" [96]
Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I. Included in his requirements of a government were to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy writes, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defense and regulate banking. It was the role of the government to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. he supported public education and religious institutions as providing general benefit to the society. Finally he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He even states that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge."[97] In addition, he was in favor of retaliatory tariffs and believed that they would eventually bring down the price of goods. He even stated in Wealth of Nations, "The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods."[98]
Noam Chomsky has argued[note 3] that several aspects of Smith's thought have been misrepresented and falsified by contemporary ideology, including Smith’s reasons for supporting markets and Smith’s views on corporations. Chomsky argues that Smith supported markets in the belief that they would lead to equality, and that Smith opposed wage labor and corporations.[99] Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty") but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire.[100]
Economist Daniel Klein believes using the term "free market economics" or "free market economist" to identify the ideas of Adam Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity.[101][102]
Economist David Ricardo set straight some of the misunderstandings about Adam Smith’s thoughts on free market. Most people still fall victim to the thinking that Adam Smith was a free market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Adam Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Adam Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood it would be unwilling to surrender the government help.[103]
Adam Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Adam Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defense.[103]
[edit] Footnotes
^ "In his fourth year, while on a visit to his grandfather's house at Strathendry on the banks of the Leven, [Smith] was stolen by a passing band of gypsies, and for a time could not be found. But presently a gentleman arrived who had met a gypsy woman a few miles down the road carrying a child that was crying piteously. Scouts were immediately dispatched in the direction indicated, and they came upon the woman in Leslie wood. As soon as she saw them she threw her burden down and escaped, and the child was brought back to his mother. [Smith] would have made, I fear, a poor gypsy."[5]
^ The 6 editions of Theory of Moral Sentiments were published in 1759, 1761, 1767, 1774, 1781, and 1790 respectively.[56]
^ See ch. 2,5,6 and 10 of his Understanding Power, New Press (February 2002), along with his Year 501: The Conquest Continues, primarily ch. 1, South End Press, 1993.
Source: Wikipedia
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Hormones
A hormone (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus") is a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones; plant hormones are also called phytohormones. Hormones in animals are often transported in the blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they express a specific receptor for that hormone. The hormone binds to the receptor protein, resulting in the activation of a signal transduction mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type-specific responses.
Endocrine hormone molecules are secreted (released) directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine hormones (or ectohormones) are secreted directly into a duct, and from the duct they either flow into the bloodstream or they flow from cell to cell by diffusion in a process known as paracrine signalling.
Contents [hide]
1 Hormones as a signal
2 Interactions with receptors
3 Physiology of hormones
4 Effects of hormone
5 Chemical classes of hormones
6 Pharmacology
7 Important human hormones
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit] Hormones as a signal
Hormonal signaling across this hierarchy involves the following:
Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue
Storage and secretion of the hormone
Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s)
Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein.
Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop.
Degradation of the hormone.
As can be inferred from the hierarchical diagram, hormone biosynthetic cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological affects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. Because of this, hormonal signaling is elaborate and hard to dissect.
[edit] Interactions with receptors
Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially combining with either a specific intracellular or cell membrane associated receptor protein. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone and activate different signal transduction pathways, or alternatively different hormones and their receptors may invoke the same biochemical pathway.
For many hormones, including most protein hormones, the receptor is membrane associated and embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.
For hormones such as steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located intracellularly within the cytoplasm of their target cell. To bind their receptors these hormones must cross the cell membrane. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, effectively amplifying or suppressing the action of certain genes, and affecting protein synthesis.[1] However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located intracellularly, some are plasma membrane associated.[2]
An important consideration, dictating the level at which cellular signal transduction pathways are activated in response to a hormonal signal is the effective concentration of hormone-receptor complexes that are formed. Hormone-receptor complex concentrations are effectively determined by three factors:
The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation
The number of receptor molecules available for complex formation and
The binding affinity between hormone and receptor.
The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation is usually the key factor in determining the level at which signal transduction pathways are activated. The number of hormone molecules available being determined by the concentration of circulating hormone, which is in turn influenced by the level and rate at which they are secreted by biosynthetic cells. The number of receptors at the cell surface of the receiving cell can also be varied as can the affinity between the hormone and its receptor.
[edit] Physiology of hormones
Most cells are capable of producing one or more molecules, which act as signaling molecules to other cells, altering their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical hormones produced by cells in the endocrine glands mentioned so far in this article are cellular products, specialized to serve as regulators at the overall organism level. However they may also exert their effects solely within the tissue in which they are produced and originally released.
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone.
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing-hormones)
Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins
Neurons and mental activity
Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature
One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.
A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the "hunger hormones" - ghrelin, orexin and PYY 3-36 - and "satiety hormones" - e.g., leptin, obestatin, nesfatin-1.
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.
[edit] Effects of hormone
Hormones have the following effects on the body:
stimulation or inhibition of growth
mood swings
induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
activation or inhibition of the immune system
regulation of metabolism
preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity
preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and menopause
control of the reproductive cycle
hunger cravings
A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis.
[edit] Chemical classes of hormones
Vertebrate hormones fall into three chemical classes:
Amine-derived hormones are derivatives of the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples are catecholamines and thyroxine.
Peptide hormones consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are TRH and vasopressin. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as proteins. Examples of protein hormones include insulin and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate side chains and are called glycoprotein hormones. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone are glycoprotein hormones.
Lipid and phospholipid-derived hormones derive from lipids such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid and phospholipids. The main classes are the steroid hormones that derive from cholesterol and the eicosanoids. Examples of steroid hormones are testosterone and cortisol. Sterol hormones such as calcitriol are a homologous system. The adrenal cortex and the gonads are primary sources of steroid hormones. Examples of eicosanoids are the widely studied prostaglandins.
[edit] Pharmacology
Many hormones and their analogues are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestagens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT), thyroxine (as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders). Insulin is used by many diabetics. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice.
A "pharmacologic dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoid to suppress inflammation.
[edit] Important human hormones
See: List of human hormones
[edit] See also
Endocrinology
Endocrine system
Neuroendocrinology
Plant hormones or plant growth regulators
Autocrine signaling
Paracrine signaling
Intracrine
Cytokine
Growth factor
Hormone disruptor
[edit] References
^ Beato M, Chavez S and Truss M (1996). "Transcriptional regulation by steroid hormones". Steroids 61 (4): 240–251. doi:10.1016/0039-128X(96)00030-X. PMID 8733009.
^ Hammes SR (2003). "The further redefining of steroid-mediated signaling". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 (5): 21680–2170. doi:10.1073/pnas.0530224100. PMID 12606724
Source: Wikipedia
Endocrine hormone molecules are secreted (released) directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine hormones (or ectohormones) are secreted directly into a duct, and from the duct they either flow into the bloodstream or they flow from cell to cell by diffusion in a process known as paracrine signalling.
Contents [hide]
1 Hormones as a signal
2 Interactions with receptors
3 Physiology of hormones
4 Effects of hormone
5 Chemical classes of hormones
6 Pharmacology
7 Important human hormones
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit] Hormones as a signal
Hormonal signaling across this hierarchy involves the following:
Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue
Storage and secretion of the hormone
Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s)
Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein.
Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop.
Degradation of the hormone.
As can be inferred from the hierarchical diagram, hormone biosynthetic cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological affects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. Because of this, hormonal signaling is elaborate and hard to dissect.
[edit] Interactions with receptors
Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially combining with either a specific intracellular or cell membrane associated receptor protein. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone and activate different signal transduction pathways, or alternatively different hormones and their receptors may invoke the same biochemical pathway.
For many hormones, including most protein hormones, the receptor is membrane associated and embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.
For hormones such as steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located intracellularly within the cytoplasm of their target cell. To bind their receptors these hormones must cross the cell membrane. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, effectively amplifying or suppressing the action of certain genes, and affecting protein synthesis.[1] However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located intracellularly, some are plasma membrane associated.[2]
An important consideration, dictating the level at which cellular signal transduction pathways are activated in response to a hormonal signal is the effective concentration of hormone-receptor complexes that are formed. Hormone-receptor complex concentrations are effectively determined by three factors:
The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation
The number of receptor molecules available for complex formation and
The binding affinity between hormone and receptor.
The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation is usually the key factor in determining the level at which signal transduction pathways are activated. The number of hormone molecules available being determined by the concentration of circulating hormone, which is in turn influenced by the level and rate at which they are secreted by biosynthetic cells. The number of receptors at the cell surface of the receiving cell can also be varied as can the affinity between the hormone and its receptor.
[edit] Physiology of hormones
Most cells are capable of producing one or more molecules, which act as signaling molecules to other cells, altering their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical hormones produced by cells in the endocrine glands mentioned so far in this article are cellular products, specialized to serve as regulators at the overall organism level. However they may also exert their effects solely within the tissue in which they are produced and originally released.
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone.
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing-hormones)
Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins
Neurons and mental activity
Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature
One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.
A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the "hunger hormones" - ghrelin, orexin and PYY 3-36 - and "satiety hormones" - e.g., leptin, obestatin, nesfatin-1.
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.
[edit] Effects of hormone
Hormones have the following effects on the body:
stimulation or inhibition of growth
mood swings
induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)
activation or inhibition of the immune system
regulation of metabolism
preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity
preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and menopause
control of the reproductive cycle
hunger cravings
A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis.
[edit] Chemical classes of hormones
Vertebrate hormones fall into three chemical classes:
Amine-derived hormones are derivatives of the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples are catecholamines and thyroxine.
Peptide hormones consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are TRH and vasopressin. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as proteins. Examples of protein hormones include insulin and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate side chains and are called glycoprotein hormones. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone are glycoprotein hormones.
Lipid and phospholipid-derived hormones derive from lipids such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid and phospholipids. The main classes are the steroid hormones that derive from cholesterol and the eicosanoids. Examples of steroid hormones are testosterone and cortisol. Sterol hormones such as calcitriol are a homologous system. The adrenal cortex and the gonads are primary sources of steroid hormones. Examples of eicosanoids are the widely studied prostaglandins.
[edit] Pharmacology
Many hormones and their analogues are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestagens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT), thyroxine (as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders). Insulin is used by many diabetics. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice.
A "pharmacologic dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoid to suppress inflammation.
[edit] Important human hormones
See: List of human hormones
[edit] See also
Endocrinology
Endocrine system
Neuroendocrinology
Plant hormones or plant growth regulators
Autocrine signaling
Paracrine signaling
Intracrine
Cytokine
Growth factor
Hormone disruptor
[edit] References
^ Beato M, Chavez S and Truss M (1996). "Transcriptional regulation by steroid hormones". Steroids 61 (4): 240–251. doi:10.1016/0039-128X(96)00030-X. PMID 8733009.
^ Hammes SR (2003). "The further redefining of steroid-mediated signaling". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 (5): 21680–2170. doi:10.1073/pnas.0530224100. PMID 12606724
Source: Wikipedia
Tuesday, January 19, 2010
Escalating violence against anti-mining capmpaigners in Cabanas, San Salvador
Escalating violence against anti-mining capmpaigners in Cabanas, El Salvador On 26th December, Dora Alicia Recinos Sorto became the third victim of a wave of violence against environmental campaigners in the Cabañas Region of El Salvador, where community members are protesting against the re-opening of a Gold Mine by Canadian Company Pacific Rim.
Dora Alicia was a member of the Cabañas Environmental Committee, and had been active in opposing the mine. She was eight months pregnant when she was shot dead, and her two year old son was also wounded in the attack.
Her murder comes six days after the fatal shooting of Ramiro Rivera Gomez, Vice President of the Cabañas Environmental Committee, who had survived being shot eight times in August this year. In June, another environmental campaigner, Gustavo Marcelo Rivera Moreno, had been tortured and killed. Many other members of the community have received death threats, including youth workers and journalists for the local community radio station Radio Victoria, and the local priest Father Luis Quintanilla narrowly escaped an attempted kidnapping.
In Mexico, Mariano Abarca Roblero campaigned against the environmentally destructive open-pit Barium mine Blackfire, a World Bank project. He was shot to death on the evening of November 27, 2009, in front of his house in Chicomuselo, Chiapas.
Dora Alicia was a member of the Cabañas Environmental Committee, and had been active in opposing the mine. She was eight months pregnant when she was shot dead, and her two year old son was also wounded in the attack.
Her murder comes six days after the fatal shooting of Ramiro Rivera Gomez, Vice President of the Cabañas Environmental Committee, who had survived being shot eight times in August this year. In June, another environmental campaigner, Gustavo Marcelo Rivera Moreno, had been tortured and killed. Many other members of the community have received death threats, including youth workers and journalists for the local community radio station Radio Victoria, and the local priest Father Luis Quintanilla narrowly escaped an attempted kidnapping.
In Mexico, Mariano Abarca Roblero campaigned against the environmentally destructive open-pit Barium mine Blackfire, a World Bank project. He was shot to death on the evening of November 27, 2009, in front of his house in Chicomuselo, Chiapas.
Sunday, January 17, 2010
John Amos Comenius
John Amos Comenius (Czech: Jan Amos Komenský; Slovak: Ján Amos Komenský; German: Johann Amos Comenius; Polish: Jan Amos Komeński; Hungarian: Comenius Ámos János; Latinized: Iohannes Amos Comenius) (28 March 1592 – 4 November 1670) was a Moravian teacher, educator, and writer. He was a Unity of the Brethren bishop, a religious refugee, and one of the earliest champions of universal education, a concept eventually set forth in his book Didactica Magna. He is often considered the father of modern education.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Life and work
2 Legacy
3 See also
4 Work
4.1 Latin
4.2 Czech
5 Publications
6 References
7 External links
[edit] Life and work
The birthplace of Comenius is not known. There are three possible locations: Komňa, Nivnice, or Uherský Brod in Moravia (all three locations are in Uherské Hradiště District, Czech Republic). His ancestors came from Hungary during the 16th Century and his original family name was Szeges (his first name was János Szeges) according to his will found in 1968 by Milada Blekastad, a monographer of Comenius.[citation needed]
Komňa is a small village where his ancestors from the Szeges family lived and where he takes his name from. (Czech: Komňa → Komenský; Comenius is a Latinised form).
Nivnice is a small village where he spent his childhood.
Uherský Brod is a town where he moved during his childhood. A museum devoted to him is located there.
Portrait of Comenius by RembrandtHe attended the Latinschool in Přerov, Moravia, where he returned 1614-18 as a teacher of the school. He continued his studies in Herborn (1611-13) and Heidelberg (1613-14). Comenius was greatly influenced by the Irish Jesuit William Bathe as well as his teachers Johann Piscator, Heinrich Gutberleth, and particularly Heinrich Alsted. The Herborn school held the principle that every theory has to be functional in practical use, therefore has to be didactic, ie morally instructive. Comenius had a few wrinkles on his mentors' thoughts later published in Janua linguarum reserata (1631) which may have made him and the Moravian Church especial targets of the Counter Reformation. Alternately, the work may have resulted from the pogroms which drove him and his church out of its homeland into exile, but in any event, the work led him to widespread prominence and fame while suffering exile.
Comenius became a pastor at age 24 and led the Brethren into exile when the Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation. He lived and worked in many different countries in Europe, including Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Transylvania, the Holy Roman Empire, England, the Netherlands, and Royal Hungary. Comenius took refuge in Leszno in Poland, where he led the gymnasium, then moved to Sweden to work with Queen Christina and the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. From 1642-1648 he went to Elbing (Elbląg) in Polish Royal Prussia, then to England with the aid of Samuel Hartlib, who came originally from Elbing. In 1650 Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, widow of George I Rákóczi prince of Transylvania invited him to Sárospatak. Comenius remained there until 1654 as professor in the first Hungarian Protestant college; he wrote some of his most important works there. Comenius returned to Leszno. During the Northern Wars in 1655, he declared his support for the Protestant Swedish side, for which his house, his manuscripts, and the school's printing press were burned down by Polish partisans in 1656. From there he took refuge in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, where he died in 1670. For unclear reasons he was buried in Naarden, where his grave can be visited in the mausoleum devoted to him.
Comenius on relief at school building in Dolany, Czech Republic.
Comenius on a stone in Berlin, GermanyOne of his daughters, Elisabeth, married Peter Figulus from Jablonné nad Orlicí. Their son, Daniel Ernst Jablonski, Comenius's grandson, later went to Berlin, where he became the highest official pastor at the court of King Frederick I of Prussia. There he became acquainted with Count Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf. Zinzendorf was among the first successors to Comenius as bishop in the renewed Moravian Brethren's Church.
Comenius, his life and teachings, have become better known since the fall of the Iron Curtain. His book, Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart, is actually a reflection on his life experiences. Other works include Janua Linguarum Reserata (a new Dutch translation by CFJ Antonides is available) and Orbis Sensualium Pictus (World in Pictures) (1657), probably the most renowned and most widely circulated of school textbooks,[2] and the Protestant Hymn songbooks (Gesangbuch).
According to Cotton Mather, Comenius was asked to be the President of Harvard University, but moved to Sweden instead.[3]
He also attempted to design a language in which false statements were inexpressible.[4]
[edit] Legacy
Comenius on a Czechoslovak 20 koruna banknoteDuring the 19th century Czech National Revival, Comenius became idealised as a symbol of the Czech nation. This image persists to the present day.
In Sárospatak, Hungary, a teacher's college is named after him (the college now belongs to the University of Miskolc.)
28 March, the birthday of Comenius, is celebrated as Teachers' Day in Slovakia and in the Czech Republic.
The Comenius Medal, one of UNESCO’s most prestigious awards honouring outstanding achievements in the fields of education research and innovation, is named after him.
In 1892 Comenius Hall, the principal classroom and faculty office building on Moravian College's campus, was built. In 1892 the three-hundredth anniversary of Comenius was very widely celebrated by educators, and at that time the Comenian Society for the study and publication of his works was formed.[5]
In 1919 the Comenius University was founded in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, (now in Slovakia). It was the first university with courses in the Slovak language.
"Comenius" a European Union school partnership program has been named after the teacher of nations.
The education department at Salem College has an annual Comenius Symposium dedicated in his honor; the subjects usually deal with modern issues in education.
Gate to Languages, a project of lifelong education, taking place in the Czech Republic from October 2005 to June 2007 and aimed at language education of teachers, was named after his book Janua linguarum reserata (Gate to Languages Unlocked).
A primary school in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia is named after Comenius (Jan Amos Komenski in Macedonian). The school was built by the Czechoslovak government after the catastrophic earthquake in 1963 that levelled most of Skopje.
The Comenius Foundation is a non-governmental organisation in Poland, dedicated to the provision of equal opportunities to children under 10 years of age.
The great Italian film director Roberto Rossellini took Comenius, and especially his theory of "direct vision," as his model in the development of his didactic theories, which Rossellini hoped would usher the world into a utopian future.[6]
There is also a Comenius Foundation in the US, a non-profit charity that uses film and documentary production to further faith, learning, and love.
[edit] See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Comenius
Jan Amos Comenius Medal, established by UNESCO and the Ministry of National Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic in 1992
Moravian College
Comenius Hall
History of philosophy in Poland
[edit] Work
[edit] Latin
Orbis Pictus ("The Visible World in Pictures")
Linguae Bohemicae thesaurus, hoc est lexicon plenissimum, grammatica accurata, idiotismorum elegantiae et emphases adagiaque ("Thesaurus of the Czech language"), 1612-1656
Problemata miscellanea ("Different Problems"), 1612
Sylloge quaestionum controversarum, 1613
Grammaticae facilioris praecepta, 1614-1616
Theatrum universitatis rerum, 1616-1627
Centrum securitatis ("The Center of Safety"), 1625
Moraviae nova et post omnes priores accuratissima delineatio autore J. A. Comenio ("Map of Moravia"), 1618-1627
Didactica magna ("The Great Didactic"), 1633-1638
Schola pansophica ("School of Pansophy"), 1650-1651
Primitiae laborum scholasticorum, 1650-1651
Opera didactica omnia ("Writing on All Learning"), 1657
De bono unitatis et ordinis ("On Good Unity and Order"), 1660
De rerum humanarum emendatione consultatio catholica ("General Consultation on an Improvement of All Things Human"), 1666
Spicilegium Didacticum, 1680
[edit] Czech
O andělích ("About Angels"), 1615
Retuňk proti Antikristu a svodům jeho ("Utterance against the Antichrist and his temptations"), 1617
O starožitnostech Moravy ("About Moravian Antiquities"), 1618-1621
Spis o rodu Žerotínů (Script about House of Žerotín), 1618-1621
Listové do nebe ("Letters to Heaven"), 1619
Manuálník aneb jádro celé biblí svaté ("Manual or Core of the Whole Saint Bible"), 1620-1623
Přemyšlování o dokonalosti kŕesťanské ("Thinking About Christian Perfection"), 1622
Nedobytedlný hrad jméno Hospodinovo ("Unconqerable Fortress (is) Name of the God"), 1622
Truchlivý, díl první ("The Mournful", volume I), 1623
O poezí české ("About Czech Poetry"), 1623-1626
Truchlivý, díl druhý ("The Mournful", volume II), 1624
O sirobě ("About Poor People"), 1624
Pres boží ("Press of God"), 1624
Vidění a zjevení Kryštofa Kottera, souseda a jircháŕe sprotavského ("Seeing and Revelation of Kryštof Kotter, Neibourgh of Mine and Tanner from Sprotava"), 1625
Překlad některých žalmů ("Translation of Some Psalms"), 1626
Didaktika česká ("Czech Didactic"), 1628-1630
Škola hrou (Schola Ludus, School by Play) 1630
Labyrint světa a ráj srdce ("Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart") 1631
Brána jazyků otevřená (The Gate of Languages Unlocked) 1631
[edit] Publications
Keatinge, The Great Didactic of Comenius (London, 1896)
Laurie, John Amos Comenius (1881; sixth edition, 1898)
Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers (London, 1890)
Müller, Comenius, ein Systematiker in der Pädagogik (Dresden, 1887)
Löscher, Comenius, der Pädagogik und Bischof (Leipzig, 1889)
Monroe, Comenius and the Beginning of Educational Reform (New York, 1900)
[edit] References
^ "John Amos Comenius." Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
^ New International Encyclopedia
^ Johann Amos Comenius, Charles William Bardeen, and Charles Hoole, The orbis pictus of John Amos Comenius. ISBN 1437297528, page ii, quoting Cotton Mather, Magnalia, vol. II, p. 14.
^ Douglas Hofstadter, Gödel, Escher, Bach. ISBN 0140289208 pages 635
^ New International Encyclopedia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
^ Rossellini, Roberto. Utopia autopsia 1010. Rome: Armando, 1974. 195-6.
[edit] External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: John Amos Comenius
Comenius' biography
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia, Central Europe
J.A. Comenius Museum in Uherský Brod
Comenius Museum & Mausoleum, Naarden, NL
The Comenius Foundation, Poland
Comenius Foundation. US
Article by the psychologist Jean Piaget on the importance of Comenius (PDF)
THE GREAT DIDACTIC (Didactica Magna) online
Jan Amos Comenius Bibliography
Source: Wikipedia
Contents [hide]
1 Life and work
2 Legacy
3 See also
4 Work
4.1 Latin
4.2 Czech
5 Publications
6 References
7 External links
[edit] Life and work
The birthplace of Comenius is not known. There are three possible locations: Komňa, Nivnice, or Uherský Brod in Moravia (all three locations are in Uherské Hradiště District, Czech Republic). His ancestors came from Hungary during the 16th Century and his original family name was Szeges (his first name was János Szeges) according to his will found in 1968 by Milada Blekastad, a monographer of Comenius.[citation needed]
Komňa is a small village where his ancestors from the Szeges family lived and where he takes his name from. (Czech: Komňa → Komenský; Comenius is a Latinised form).
Nivnice is a small village where he spent his childhood.
Uherský Brod is a town where he moved during his childhood. A museum devoted to him is located there.
Portrait of Comenius by RembrandtHe attended the Latinschool in Přerov, Moravia, where he returned 1614-18 as a teacher of the school. He continued his studies in Herborn (1611-13) and Heidelberg (1613-14). Comenius was greatly influenced by the Irish Jesuit William Bathe as well as his teachers Johann Piscator, Heinrich Gutberleth, and particularly Heinrich Alsted. The Herborn school held the principle that every theory has to be functional in practical use, therefore has to be didactic, ie morally instructive. Comenius had a few wrinkles on his mentors' thoughts later published in Janua linguarum reserata (1631) which may have made him and the Moravian Church especial targets of the Counter Reformation. Alternately, the work may have resulted from the pogroms which drove him and his church out of its homeland into exile, but in any event, the work led him to widespread prominence and fame while suffering exile.
Comenius became a pastor at age 24 and led the Brethren into exile when the Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation. He lived and worked in many different countries in Europe, including Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Transylvania, the Holy Roman Empire, England, the Netherlands, and Royal Hungary. Comenius took refuge in Leszno in Poland, where he led the gymnasium, then moved to Sweden to work with Queen Christina and the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. From 1642-1648 he went to Elbing (Elbląg) in Polish Royal Prussia, then to England with the aid of Samuel Hartlib, who came originally from Elbing. In 1650 Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, widow of George I Rákóczi prince of Transylvania invited him to Sárospatak. Comenius remained there until 1654 as professor in the first Hungarian Protestant college; he wrote some of his most important works there. Comenius returned to Leszno. During the Northern Wars in 1655, he declared his support for the Protestant Swedish side, for which his house, his manuscripts, and the school's printing press were burned down by Polish partisans in 1656. From there he took refuge in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, where he died in 1670. For unclear reasons he was buried in Naarden, where his grave can be visited in the mausoleum devoted to him.
Comenius on relief at school building in Dolany, Czech Republic.
Comenius on a stone in Berlin, GermanyOne of his daughters, Elisabeth, married Peter Figulus from Jablonné nad Orlicí. Their son, Daniel Ernst Jablonski, Comenius's grandson, later went to Berlin, where he became the highest official pastor at the court of King Frederick I of Prussia. There he became acquainted with Count Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf. Zinzendorf was among the first successors to Comenius as bishop in the renewed Moravian Brethren's Church.
Comenius, his life and teachings, have become better known since the fall of the Iron Curtain. His book, Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart, is actually a reflection on his life experiences. Other works include Janua Linguarum Reserata (a new Dutch translation by CFJ Antonides is available) and Orbis Sensualium Pictus (World in Pictures) (1657), probably the most renowned and most widely circulated of school textbooks,[2] and the Protestant Hymn songbooks (Gesangbuch).
According to Cotton Mather, Comenius was asked to be the President of Harvard University, but moved to Sweden instead.[3]
He also attempted to design a language in which false statements were inexpressible.[4]
[edit] Legacy
Comenius on a Czechoslovak 20 koruna banknoteDuring the 19th century Czech National Revival, Comenius became idealised as a symbol of the Czech nation. This image persists to the present day.
In Sárospatak, Hungary, a teacher's college is named after him (the college now belongs to the University of Miskolc.)
28 March, the birthday of Comenius, is celebrated as Teachers' Day in Slovakia and in the Czech Republic.
The Comenius Medal, one of UNESCO’s most prestigious awards honouring outstanding achievements in the fields of education research and innovation, is named after him.
In 1892 Comenius Hall, the principal classroom and faculty office building on Moravian College's campus, was built. In 1892 the three-hundredth anniversary of Comenius was very widely celebrated by educators, and at that time the Comenian Society for the study and publication of his works was formed.[5]
In 1919 the Comenius University was founded in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, (now in Slovakia). It was the first university with courses in the Slovak language.
"Comenius" a European Union school partnership program has been named after the teacher of nations.
The education department at Salem College has an annual Comenius Symposium dedicated in his honor; the subjects usually deal with modern issues in education.
Gate to Languages, a project of lifelong education, taking place in the Czech Republic from October 2005 to June 2007 and aimed at language education of teachers, was named after his book Janua linguarum reserata (Gate to Languages Unlocked).
A primary school in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia is named after Comenius (Jan Amos Komenski in Macedonian). The school was built by the Czechoslovak government after the catastrophic earthquake in 1963 that levelled most of Skopje.
The Comenius Foundation is a non-governmental organisation in Poland, dedicated to the provision of equal opportunities to children under 10 years of age.
The great Italian film director Roberto Rossellini took Comenius, and especially his theory of "direct vision," as his model in the development of his didactic theories, which Rossellini hoped would usher the world into a utopian future.[6]
There is also a Comenius Foundation in the US, a non-profit charity that uses film and documentary production to further faith, learning, and love.
[edit] See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Comenius
Jan Amos Comenius Medal, established by UNESCO and the Ministry of National Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic in 1992
Moravian College
Comenius Hall
History of philosophy in Poland
[edit] Work
[edit] Latin
Orbis Pictus ("The Visible World in Pictures")
Linguae Bohemicae thesaurus, hoc est lexicon plenissimum, grammatica accurata, idiotismorum elegantiae et emphases adagiaque ("Thesaurus of the Czech language"), 1612-1656
Problemata miscellanea ("Different Problems"), 1612
Sylloge quaestionum controversarum, 1613
Grammaticae facilioris praecepta, 1614-1616
Theatrum universitatis rerum, 1616-1627
Centrum securitatis ("The Center of Safety"), 1625
Moraviae nova et post omnes priores accuratissima delineatio autore J. A. Comenio ("Map of Moravia"), 1618-1627
Didactica magna ("The Great Didactic"), 1633-1638
Schola pansophica ("School of Pansophy"), 1650-1651
Primitiae laborum scholasticorum, 1650-1651
Opera didactica omnia ("Writing on All Learning"), 1657
De bono unitatis et ordinis ("On Good Unity and Order"), 1660
De rerum humanarum emendatione consultatio catholica ("General Consultation on an Improvement of All Things Human"), 1666
Spicilegium Didacticum, 1680
[edit] Czech
O andělích ("About Angels"), 1615
Retuňk proti Antikristu a svodům jeho ("Utterance against the Antichrist and his temptations"), 1617
O starožitnostech Moravy ("About Moravian Antiquities"), 1618-1621
Spis o rodu Žerotínů (Script about House of Žerotín), 1618-1621
Listové do nebe ("Letters to Heaven"), 1619
Manuálník aneb jádro celé biblí svaté ("Manual or Core of the Whole Saint Bible"), 1620-1623
Přemyšlování o dokonalosti kŕesťanské ("Thinking About Christian Perfection"), 1622
Nedobytedlný hrad jméno Hospodinovo ("Unconqerable Fortress (is) Name of the God"), 1622
Truchlivý, díl první ("The Mournful", volume I), 1623
O poezí české ("About Czech Poetry"), 1623-1626
Truchlivý, díl druhý ("The Mournful", volume II), 1624
O sirobě ("About Poor People"), 1624
Pres boží ("Press of God"), 1624
Vidění a zjevení Kryštofa Kottera, souseda a jircháŕe sprotavského ("Seeing and Revelation of Kryštof Kotter, Neibourgh of Mine and Tanner from Sprotava"), 1625
Překlad některých žalmů ("Translation of Some Psalms"), 1626
Didaktika česká ("Czech Didactic"), 1628-1630
Škola hrou (Schola Ludus, School by Play) 1630
Labyrint světa a ráj srdce ("Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart") 1631
Brána jazyků otevřená (The Gate of Languages Unlocked) 1631
[edit] Publications
Keatinge, The Great Didactic of Comenius (London, 1896)
Laurie, John Amos Comenius (1881; sixth edition, 1898)
Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers (London, 1890)
Müller, Comenius, ein Systematiker in der Pädagogik (Dresden, 1887)
Löscher, Comenius, der Pädagogik und Bischof (Leipzig, 1889)
Monroe, Comenius and the Beginning of Educational Reform (New York, 1900)
[edit] References
^ "John Amos Comenius." Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
^ New International Encyclopedia
^ Johann Amos Comenius, Charles William Bardeen, and Charles Hoole, The orbis pictus of John Amos Comenius. ISBN 1437297528, page ii, quoting Cotton Mather, Magnalia, vol. II, p. 14.
^ Douglas Hofstadter, Gödel, Escher, Bach. ISBN 0140289208 pages 635
^ New International Encyclopedia - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
^ Rossellini, Roberto. Utopia autopsia 1010. Rome: Armando, 1974. 195-6.
[edit] External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: John Amos Comenius
Comenius' biography
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia, Central Europe
J.A. Comenius Museum in Uherský Brod
Comenius Museum & Mausoleum, Naarden, NL
The Comenius Foundation, Poland
Comenius Foundation. US
Article by the psychologist Jean Piaget on the importance of Comenius (PDF)
THE GREAT DIDACTIC (Didactica Magna) online
Jan Amos Comenius Bibliography
Source: Wikipedia
Friday, January 15, 2010
JANUARY UPDATE FROM THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST & THE WILHELM REICH MUSEUM
1
Happy New Year. We thank you for your continual interest and support. For newcomers
to this e-mail Update list, none of the names on this list—nor the names of any Museum
visitors, conference attendees or bookstore customers—are shared with any other
individuals or organizations.
If at any time you wish to be removed from this list, please let us know. All previous
Updates, dating from March 2004, can be read at:
www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/resources.html#updates
NEW YEAR’S THOUGHTS
As one year ends and another begins, we’ve been evaluating a variety of new projects
and partnerships in which to invest our time, our resources, our hopes and our friendship.
Among them are new speaking opportunities, including two talks this March in Greece;
seeking major grants for further archival work at the Countway Library of Medicine;
continuing to design our new website; showing Reich’s unpublished laboratory notebooks
to specific individuals in the scientific community; and numerous other initiatives.
We’ve also spent considerable time immersed in the current literature and discussions
about the challenges and opportunities for content providers in the digital age.
PROVIDING CONTENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Newspapers, magazines, book publishers and major Internet companies are now struggling
to resolve issues regarding copyrights, privacy, distribution and new business models.
And all of the recent books we’ve read on these issues, as well as discussions we’ve had
with people in book publishing and print journalism, always include one key question:
With today’s Internet capabilities, how can intellectual property and content
be responsibly distributed in ways that legally, financially and morally respect
the efforts and expenses that create this intellectual property and content?
The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust holds the copyrights to what amounts to over 7000 pages
of publicly available published materials—i.e. books, research journals and bulletins—
plus all rights to Reich’s unpublished materials in the Archives of the Orgone Institute.
Royalties from Reich’s books, plus the sales of his research journals, bulletins and other
materials in the Museum bookstore, are important revenue sources for the Trust.
2
But we also recognize the opportunities that digital platforms offer for wider distribution
of content by and about Wilhelm Reich. The Trust is now exploring ways to balance
digital dissemination of content with our financial and intellectual responsibilities.
INVITATION TO SPEAK IN GREECE
The Hellenic Association of Orgonomy (HAO), located in Greece, has invited the Trust
to deliver two talks this March: in Thessaloniki on Saturday, March 13; and again in
Athens on Sunday, March 14. Details on the specific venues for these presentations
are being worked out and will be announced in our next Update.
This invitation came from two attendees at our 2009 Summer Conference at Orgonon,
“From the Archives of the Orgone Institute”: Theodota Chasapi, M.D. and Tania
Anastasia Zotou, M.D. who are psychiatrists, medical orgonomists and clinical associates
of the American College of Orgonomy.
Dr. Chasapi was a founding member of the HAO in 1988, and Dr. Zotou is currently its
president. Since its founding to promote Reich’s work in public health, the HAO has
hosted many well attended lectures and workshops featuring HAO members as well as
speakers from around the world. The HAO also publishes a newsletter entitled Orgonoma.
Representing the Trust will be Kevin Hinchey, Board Member of the Trust and Associate
Director of The Wilhelm Reich Museum, whose talk is entitled: Wilhelm Reich, M.D. –
Safeguarding his Legacy from Distortion and Slander.
In what will be essentially a new narrative for a new audience, Mr. Hinchey will discuss:
the history and principal activities of the Trust
the importance of primary materials—Reich’s books, research journals & bulletins,
and archives—for intellectually honest scholarship and narratives about Reich
today’s challenges in publishing and archival management
the importance of new and factually accurate narratives for broader audiences
the critical need for new research in orgonomic medicine and science.
SEEKING MAJOR GRANTS FOR ARCHIVAL WORK
Since October 2007 the Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute has been posted
on our website at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/archive_index.pdf.
And since November 2007, these archives—located at the Center for the History of
Medicine at the Countway Library of Medicine at Harvard University—have been
accessible to scholars and researchers.
But we now need to take the next major step: conforming this archive Index—which was
prepared in 2007 solely by The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust—to the HOLLIS catalogue
format used by the Countway Library and Harvard University’s seventy other libraries.
3
HOLLIS stands for Harvard OnLine Library Information System, and its catalogues are
the databases containing over 11 million records for more than 15 million books, journals,
manuscripts, government documents, maps, microforms, music scores, sound recordings,
visual materials, and data files in Harvard’s many libraries.
HOLLIS has its own specific designs, templates and parameters into which content from
the Trust’s existing archive Index needs to be properly entered and conformed. HOLLIS
also requires additional information about archive collections: i.e. a descriptive summary
of each collection, biographical information, introductions to the various categories of
materials, detailed data about many individual files, restrictions on specific materials, etc.
Once all of these inputs are made according to HOLLIS standards, HOLLIS will have
what is known as a “Finding Aid” for the Archives of the Orgone Institute that can be
easily accessed throughout Harvard University’s library information system.
Transferring this data from our current 141-page Index to HOLLIS, and supplementing it
with the required additional information will be a labor intensive process, and a costly one
for which the Trust must provide the funds. The Countway Library will need to hire people
familiar with HOLLIS to review hundreds of files in the Archives of the Orgone Institute,
adapt the Index’s current listings to HOLLIS, and work closely with the Trust to include
further information where it’s needed.
The Trust has begun the process of trying to identify funding organizations that might
provide major grants for this type of work. The final price tag for creating a HOLLIS
Finding Aid for Reich’s entire archive will be tens of thousands of dollars. Until then,
scholars and researchers continue to use the Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute,
posted on our website, to prepare for their visits to the Countway Library.
If anyone has any knowledge about potential funding sources for this endeavor or can
provide any help to us in this effort, please contact us at: wreich@rangeley.org.
EXAMPLE OF A “FINDING AID” (ARCHIVE INDEX)
AT THE COUNTWAY LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
To illustrate some of the points in our previous discussion, we suggest you look at the
Finding Aid for one of the other archives at the Center for the History of Medicine at
the Countway Library: http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~med00104
If you compare our existing Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute on our website
to this HOLLIS Finding Aid, you’ll get a clear picture of where we are now and where
we want to be in the near future in terms of permanently indexing Reich’s archives.
And this example is not without its ironies: this HOLLIS Finding Aid is for the papers of
noted Austrian psychoanalyst Greta Lehner Bibring, M.D. (1899 – 1977) who emigrated to
Boston in 1941 and was appointed head of the department of psychiatry at the Beth Israel
Hospital in 1946, the first woman head of a clinical department at Harvard Medical School.
4
As Greta Lehner, she and her future husband Edward Bibring were Reich’s friends and
fellow students at the University of Vienna Medical School. In the book Passion of Youth,
Reich’s diary entries (Vienna, 1918–1922) document his friendship and romantic feelings
for the young Greta Lehner.
Peruse the HOLLIS Finding Aid for the Greta Bibring collection and you’ll see numerous
features that are typical of archival Finding Aids at many institutions: descriptive summary
of the collection; processing information; access and use restrictions; related collections
at other institutions; series and subseries in the collection (which would relate to what we
now call “Categories” in our Index); biographical information; information about the
scope and content of the collection, etc.
At the beginning of this Finder’s Aid you’ll also find this statement: “This collection has
been sponsored by a generous donation by Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical
School, to the Archives for Women in Medicine.” Which brings us to our next discussion.
MONEY AND THE MANAGEMENT OF REICH’S ARCHIVES
The previous items inevitably bring up a fair question: “Why wasn’t the Index of the
Archives of the Orgone Institute put into Harvard’s HOLLIS format back in 2007?”
The quick and simple answer: “No money.”
When archive collections are given to a library or other institution, they customarily come
with funding to pay for the expenses of “processing” the collection:
having professional archivists go through all of the materials
organizing, labeling and boxing these materials for storage and access
compiling the necessary data about these materials to create a Finding Aid
for scholars and researchers to access these materials in the future
Check out any major archive at any major institution and you’ll find that it most likely was
acquired by that institution with significant funding attached to it for the requisite archive
work that would follow. As we’ve indicated above, the Greta Bibring collection—a little
less than half the size of Reich’s at 45.6 cubic feet—brought with it a donation from the
Dean of the Harvard Medical School which provided funding for processing this archive.
When an agreement was signed in October 1973 between The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust
and the Countway Library to deposit Reich’s archives at the library over the next few
years, the Trust had no money to finance the massive processing work that this collection
required. Nor has the Trust ever had the luxury of earmarking any significant monies to
pay for professional archivists to process the 98 cubic feet of materials in Reich’s archives.
Fortunately for the Trust, this was not an issue for the man responsible for welcoming
Reich’s archives to the Countway: Richard Wolfe, Chief Librarian of Rare Books
and Special Collections, the former name of the Center for the History of Medicine.
(Mr. Wolfe is no longer at the Countway and is no relation to Theodore Wolfe, M.D.,
Reich’s colleague and translator.)
5
Consequently, for over three decades—amid all of her other Trust responsibilities—it has
been Mary Higgins who has perused, organized and labeled all of the archival materials,
painstakingly creating, compiling and revising handwritten and typewritten lists of over
1,700 file names.
Shortly after the 2007 International Conference on Orgonomy in Rangeley, Maine, these
handwritten and typewritten lists were turned into computer files and organized into the
141-page Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute.
NEW WEBSITE-IN-PROGRESS
We are currently in the process of revamping our website which receives hundreds of hits
every day. Because this website is our arm out into the world and, for some people, their
first point-of-contact with Reich’s work, we need to constantly anticipate and respond to
the changing needs of our web visitors.
And because we have to compete with countless Internet sources that distort, misrepresent
and trivialize the facts of Reich’s life and work, our website will aspire to be the “gold
standard” for providing accurate content about Reich.
Our new site will be under the umbrella of THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST,
which was conceived by Wilhelm Reich, M.D. in his Last Will and Testament in March
of 1957. We have developed a Trust banner or “brand” for the new website, under which
content about the principal responsibilities and activities of the Trust will be organized.
COMING SOON: PRIMARY MATERIALS ON OUR NEW WEBSITE
Our current website contains no content from Reich’s published books, research journals
or bulletins. The reason for this is because the Trust relies on the sales of these materials
for much-needed income. But there is now considerable evidence and literature from
authors and publishers that posting excerpts from published books on the Internet can
actually generate increased book sales. It’s something we’re going to try.
Therefore, our new website will include:
FROM REICH’S BOOKS: Reich’s Introductions or Prefaces, plus Chapter One
FROM REICH’S BOOKS: Other chapters from selected books
FROM REICH’S RESEARCH JOURNALS & BULLETINS: Selected articles
FROM REICH’S VOICE RECORDINGS: Selected audio clips
FROM REICH’S ARCHIVES: Samples/visuals of original documents
Plus excerpts from Man’s Right to Know, our 28-minute biographical DVD
We hope by posting substantial samples of these materials that many of our hundreds of
daily website visitors will access these excerpts and will be inspired to purchase books,
journals, bulletins, CDs and DVDs.
6
SUBMITTING OUR NEW MANUSCRIPT
This month we’re submitting our new manuscript to Farrar, Straus and Giroux, our
publisher in New York. Its working title is Letters and Journals: 1948–1957, the sequel
to American Odyssey and the fourth and final collection of Reich’s letters and journals.
We had originally hoped to submit it by the end of November 2009. But the arduous task
of typing up the manuscript draft—culled from hundreds of pages of selections from
Reich’s letters, handwritten diaries and work journals—took longer than we anticipated.
HISTORY OF THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST
People often ask us if there is a formal printed history of the Trust, to which we have to
answer “no.” As we reiterate at every opportunity, the Trust’s major responsibilities are:
operating The Wilhelm Reich Museum
working with New York publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux since 1960
to publish Reich’s books
managing the Archives of the Orgone Institute
While there is no printed volume about the Trust, a brief overview of its history can be
found on our website at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/about.html.
And these Updates (46 of them), which we began in March 2004, are the best source
of regular contemporaneous documentation about the Trust’s ongoing activities:
www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/resources.html,#updates
Also, the Trust’s “Organizational Chart,” which provides a succinct visual look at our
major responsibilities, can be seen at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/chart.html
BEHIND THE SCENES
Most people are generally unaware of the many things we do out of the public eye to
try to expand awareness and support for Reich’s legacy in realistic and practical ways.
For example, in 2008 we wrote a lengthy letter to renowned physicist Fritjof Capra who
had commented briefly but favorably about Reich in his 1982 book The Turning Point.
“Do you still have any interest in Reich’s medical and scientific legacy?” we asked at one
point in the letter. “And if so, is that interest sufficient to want to become involved in some
way —consultant, advisor, researcher—in any future projects involving Reich and his
work, i.e. laboratory research, clinical trials, conferences, seminars, film projects, etc.?”
We received a standard form letter from Capra’s office, informing us that he was too busy
with his own work to take on any other activities. The one grace note to this disappointing,
but not unexpected response, was a handwritten line from his secretary telling us that Capra
wished us the best of luck in our endeavors.
7
Last year we had an opportunity to meet a Nobel Prize winner in medicine and talk to him
about Reich. We followed up by sending this physician a copy of Orgonomic Diagnosis
of Cancer Biopathy and a DVD of Man’s Right to Know.
We also made some inquiries last year about the possibility of college physics students
replicating some of Reich’s experiments as described in The Cancer Biopathy as part of
their course requirements to carry out independent research projects.
Regrettably none of these efforts—or others like them—has come to anything, but we’re
always keeping an eye open for opportunities to reach out to new audiences.
WE HAVE SPEAKERS AVAILABLE
Are you planning an event or are you part of an organization where you’d like to hear
more about the life and legacy of Wilhelm Reich? Or more about The Wilhelm Reich
Infant Trust or The Wilhelm Reich Museum? The Trust has available speakers to
address your group. For more details, please contact us at: wreich@rangeley.org.
LATEST E-MAIL UPDATE FORMAT
You’ve undoubtedly noticed that we’ve experimented with different formats in our last
few Updates. For years we’ve sent out the Updates as PDF attachments because we find
the PDF format attractive and easy to read. But there was some concern and speculation
on our end about how many recipients were or were not opening these attachments for
whatever reason. (Ultimately, of course, we have no way of telling.)
So our August and September 2009 Updates had the text imbedded in the actual e-mails.
Unfortunately some of the formatting of the text was distorted during transmission. We
then toyed around with the idea of buying some expensive software. But finally we came
to feel that the e-mail format is simply not the best or easiest format for reading lengthy
text of any kind, that the PDF format offers a more visually pleasing look for extended
reading.
Which is why we’re trying something a little different now: to maintain the PDF format
and save recipients from possible concerns about opening any attachments, we’ll be
posting the Updates on our website, and then e-mailing you the link to the posted Update.
We hope this is easy and convenient for you.
UNTIL NEXT MONTH
Happy New Year. We thank you for your continual interest and support. For newcomers
to this e-mail Update list, none of the names on this list—nor the names of any Museum
visitors, conference attendees or bookstore customers—are shared with any other
individuals or organizations.
If at any time you wish to be removed from this list, please let us know. All previous
Updates, dating from March 2004, can be read at:
www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/resources.html#updates
NEW YEAR’S THOUGHTS
As one year ends and another begins, we’ve been evaluating a variety of new projects
and partnerships in which to invest our time, our resources, our hopes and our friendship.
Among them are new speaking opportunities, including two talks this March in Greece;
seeking major grants for further archival work at the Countway Library of Medicine;
continuing to design our new website; showing Reich’s unpublished laboratory notebooks
to specific individuals in the scientific community; and numerous other initiatives.
We’ve also spent considerable time immersed in the current literature and discussions
about the challenges and opportunities for content providers in the digital age.
PROVIDING CONTENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Newspapers, magazines, book publishers and major Internet companies are now struggling
to resolve issues regarding copyrights, privacy, distribution and new business models.
And all of the recent books we’ve read on these issues, as well as discussions we’ve had
with people in book publishing and print journalism, always include one key question:
With today’s Internet capabilities, how can intellectual property and content
be responsibly distributed in ways that legally, financially and morally respect
the efforts and expenses that create this intellectual property and content?
The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust holds the copyrights to what amounts to over 7000 pages
of publicly available published materials—i.e. books, research journals and bulletins—
plus all rights to Reich’s unpublished materials in the Archives of the Orgone Institute.
Royalties from Reich’s books, plus the sales of his research journals, bulletins and other
materials in the Museum bookstore, are important revenue sources for the Trust.
2
But we also recognize the opportunities that digital platforms offer for wider distribution
of content by and about Wilhelm Reich. The Trust is now exploring ways to balance
digital dissemination of content with our financial and intellectual responsibilities.
INVITATION TO SPEAK IN GREECE
The Hellenic Association of Orgonomy (HAO), located in Greece, has invited the Trust
to deliver two talks this March: in Thessaloniki on Saturday, March 13; and again in
Athens on Sunday, March 14. Details on the specific venues for these presentations
are being worked out and will be announced in our next Update.
This invitation came from two attendees at our 2009 Summer Conference at Orgonon,
“From the Archives of the Orgone Institute”: Theodota Chasapi, M.D. and Tania
Anastasia Zotou, M.D. who are psychiatrists, medical orgonomists and clinical associates
of the American College of Orgonomy.
Dr. Chasapi was a founding member of the HAO in 1988, and Dr. Zotou is currently its
president. Since its founding to promote Reich’s work in public health, the HAO has
hosted many well attended lectures and workshops featuring HAO members as well as
speakers from around the world. The HAO also publishes a newsletter entitled Orgonoma.
Representing the Trust will be Kevin Hinchey, Board Member of the Trust and Associate
Director of The Wilhelm Reich Museum, whose talk is entitled: Wilhelm Reich, M.D. –
Safeguarding his Legacy from Distortion and Slander.
In what will be essentially a new narrative for a new audience, Mr. Hinchey will discuss:
the history and principal activities of the Trust
the importance of primary materials—Reich’s books, research journals & bulletins,
and archives—for intellectually honest scholarship and narratives about Reich
today’s challenges in publishing and archival management
the importance of new and factually accurate narratives for broader audiences
the critical need for new research in orgonomic medicine and science.
SEEKING MAJOR GRANTS FOR ARCHIVAL WORK
Since October 2007 the Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute has been posted
on our website at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/archive_index.pdf.
And since November 2007, these archives—located at the Center for the History of
Medicine at the Countway Library of Medicine at Harvard University—have been
accessible to scholars and researchers.
But we now need to take the next major step: conforming this archive Index—which was
prepared in 2007 solely by The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust—to the HOLLIS catalogue
format used by the Countway Library and Harvard University’s seventy other libraries.
3
HOLLIS stands for Harvard OnLine Library Information System, and its catalogues are
the databases containing over 11 million records for more than 15 million books, journals,
manuscripts, government documents, maps, microforms, music scores, sound recordings,
visual materials, and data files in Harvard’s many libraries.
HOLLIS has its own specific designs, templates and parameters into which content from
the Trust’s existing archive Index needs to be properly entered and conformed. HOLLIS
also requires additional information about archive collections: i.e. a descriptive summary
of each collection, biographical information, introductions to the various categories of
materials, detailed data about many individual files, restrictions on specific materials, etc.
Once all of these inputs are made according to HOLLIS standards, HOLLIS will have
what is known as a “Finding Aid” for the Archives of the Orgone Institute that can be
easily accessed throughout Harvard University’s library information system.
Transferring this data from our current 141-page Index to HOLLIS, and supplementing it
with the required additional information will be a labor intensive process, and a costly one
for which the Trust must provide the funds. The Countway Library will need to hire people
familiar with HOLLIS to review hundreds of files in the Archives of the Orgone Institute,
adapt the Index’s current listings to HOLLIS, and work closely with the Trust to include
further information where it’s needed.
The Trust has begun the process of trying to identify funding organizations that might
provide major grants for this type of work. The final price tag for creating a HOLLIS
Finding Aid for Reich’s entire archive will be tens of thousands of dollars. Until then,
scholars and researchers continue to use the Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute,
posted on our website, to prepare for their visits to the Countway Library.
If anyone has any knowledge about potential funding sources for this endeavor or can
provide any help to us in this effort, please contact us at: wreich@rangeley.org.
EXAMPLE OF A “FINDING AID” (ARCHIVE INDEX)
AT THE COUNTWAY LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
To illustrate some of the points in our previous discussion, we suggest you look at the
Finding Aid for one of the other archives at the Center for the History of Medicine at
the Countway Library: http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~med00104
If you compare our existing Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute on our website
to this HOLLIS Finding Aid, you’ll get a clear picture of where we are now and where
we want to be in the near future in terms of permanently indexing Reich’s archives.
And this example is not without its ironies: this HOLLIS Finding Aid is for the papers of
noted Austrian psychoanalyst Greta Lehner Bibring, M.D. (1899 – 1977) who emigrated to
Boston in 1941 and was appointed head of the department of psychiatry at the Beth Israel
Hospital in 1946, the first woman head of a clinical department at Harvard Medical School.
4
As Greta Lehner, she and her future husband Edward Bibring were Reich’s friends and
fellow students at the University of Vienna Medical School. In the book Passion of Youth,
Reich’s diary entries (Vienna, 1918–1922) document his friendship and romantic feelings
for the young Greta Lehner.
Peruse the HOLLIS Finding Aid for the Greta Bibring collection and you’ll see numerous
features that are typical of archival Finding Aids at many institutions: descriptive summary
of the collection; processing information; access and use restrictions; related collections
at other institutions; series and subseries in the collection (which would relate to what we
now call “Categories” in our Index); biographical information; information about the
scope and content of the collection, etc.
At the beginning of this Finder’s Aid you’ll also find this statement: “This collection has
been sponsored by a generous donation by Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical
School, to the Archives for Women in Medicine.” Which brings us to our next discussion.
MONEY AND THE MANAGEMENT OF REICH’S ARCHIVES
The previous items inevitably bring up a fair question: “Why wasn’t the Index of the
Archives of the Orgone Institute put into Harvard’s HOLLIS format back in 2007?”
The quick and simple answer: “No money.”
When archive collections are given to a library or other institution, they customarily come
with funding to pay for the expenses of “processing” the collection:
having professional archivists go through all of the materials
organizing, labeling and boxing these materials for storage and access
compiling the necessary data about these materials to create a Finding Aid
for scholars and researchers to access these materials in the future
Check out any major archive at any major institution and you’ll find that it most likely was
acquired by that institution with significant funding attached to it for the requisite archive
work that would follow. As we’ve indicated above, the Greta Bibring collection—a little
less than half the size of Reich’s at 45.6 cubic feet—brought with it a donation from the
Dean of the Harvard Medical School which provided funding for processing this archive.
When an agreement was signed in October 1973 between The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust
and the Countway Library to deposit Reich’s archives at the library over the next few
years, the Trust had no money to finance the massive processing work that this collection
required. Nor has the Trust ever had the luxury of earmarking any significant monies to
pay for professional archivists to process the 98 cubic feet of materials in Reich’s archives.
Fortunately for the Trust, this was not an issue for the man responsible for welcoming
Reich’s archives to the Countway: Richard Wolfe, Chief Librarian of Rare Books
and Special Collections, the former name of the Center for the History of Medicine.
(Mr. Wolfe is no longer at the Countway and is no relation to Theodore Wolfe, M.D.,
Reich’s colleague and translator.)
5
Consequently, for over three decades—amid all of her other Trust responsibilities—it has
been Mary Higgins who has perused, organized and labeled all of the archival materials,
painstakingly creating, compiling and revising handwritten and typewritten lists of over
1,700 file names.
Shortly after the 2007 International Conference on Orgonomy in Rangeley, Maine, these
handwritten and typewritten lists were turned into computer files and organized into the
141-page Index of the Archives of the Orgone Institute.
NEW WEBSITE-IN-PROGRESS
We are currently in the process of revamping our website which receives hundreds of hits
every day. Because this website is our arm out into the world and, for some people, their
first point-of-contact with Reich’s work, we need to constantly anticipate and respond to
the changing needs of our web visitors.
And because we have to compete with countless Internet sources that distort, misrepresent
and trivialize the facts of Reich’s life and work, our website will aspire to be the “gold
standard” for providing accurate content about Reich.
Our new site will be under the umbrella of THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST,
which was conceived by Wilhelm Reich, M.D. in his Last Will and Testament in March
of 1957. We have developed a Trust banner or “brand” for the new website, under which
content about the principal responsibilities and activities of the Trust will be organized.
COMING SOON: PRIMARY MATERIALS ON OUR NEW WEBSITE
Our current website contains no content from Reich’s published books, research journals
or bulletins. The reason for this is because the Trust relies on the sales of these materials
for much-needed income. But there is now considerable evidence and literature from
authors and publishers that posting excerpts from published books on the Internet can
actually generate increased book sales. It’s something we’re going to try.
Therefore, our new website will include:
FROM REICH’S BOOKS: Reich’s Introductions or Prefaces, plus Chapter One
FROM REICH’S BOOKS: Other chapters from selected books
FROM REICH’S RESEARCH JOURNALS & BULLETINS: Selected articles
FROM REICH’S VOICE RECORDINGS: Selected audio clips
FROM REICH’S ARCHIVES: Samples/visuals of original documents
Plus excerpts from Man’s Right to Know, our 28-minute biographical DVD
We hope by posting substantial samples of these materials that many of our hundreds of
daily website visitors will access these excerpts and will be inspired to purchase books,
journals, bulletins, CDs and DVDs.
6
SUBMITTING OUR NEW MANUSCRIPT
This month we’re submitting our new manuscript to Farrar, Straus and Giroux, our
publisher in New York. Its working title is Letters and Journals: 1948–1957, the sequel
to American Odyssey and the fourth and final collection of Reich’s letters and journals.
We had originally hoped to submit it by the end of November 2009. But the arduous task
of typing up the manuscript draft—culled from hundreds of pages of selections from
Reich’s letters, handwritten diaries and work journals—took longer than we anticipated.
HISTORY OF THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST
People often ask us if there is a formal printed history of the Trust, to which we have to
answer “no.” As we reiterate at every opportunity, the Trust’s major responsibilities are:
operating The Wilhelm Reich Museum
working with New York publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux since 1960
to publish Reich’s books
managing the Archives of the Orgone Institute
While there is no printed volume about the Trust, a brief overview of its history can be
found on our website at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/about.html.
And these Updates (46 of them), which we began in March 2004, are the best source
of regular contemporaneous documentation about the Trust’s ongoing activities:
www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/resources.html,#updates
Also, the Trust’s “Organizational Chart,” which provides a succinct visual look at our
major responsibilities, can be seen at: www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/chart.html
BEHIND THE SCENES
Most people are generally unaware of the many things we do out of the public eye to
try to expand awareness and support for Reich’s legacy in realistic and practical ways.
For example, in 2008 we wrote a lengthy letter to renowned physicist Fritjof Capra who
had commented briefly but favorably about Reich in his 1982 book The Turning Point.
“Do you still have any interest in Reich’s medical and scientific legacy?” we asked at one
point in the letter. “And if so, is that interest sufficient to want to become involved in some
way —consultant, advisor, researcher—in any future projects involving Reich and his
work, i.e. laboratory research, clinical trials, conferences, seminars, film projects, etc.?”
We received a standard form letter from Capra’s office, informing us that he was too busy
with his own work to take on any other activities. The one grace note to this disappointing,
but not unexpected response, was a handwritten line from his secretary telling us that Capra
wished us the best of luck in our endeavors.
7
Last year we had an opportunity to meet a Nobel Prize winner in medicine and talk to him
about Reich. We followed up by sending this physician a copy of Orgonomic Diagnosis
of Cancer Biopathy and a DVD of Man’s Right to Know.
We also made some inquiries last year about the possibility of college physics students
replicating some of Reich’s experiments as described in The Cancer Biopathy as part of
their course requirements to carry out independent research projects.
Regrettably none of these efforts—or others like them—has come to anything, but we’re
always keeping an eye open for opportunities to reach out to new audiences.
WE HAVE SPEAKERS AVAILABLE
Are you planning an event or are you part of an organization where you’d like to hear
more about the life and legacy of Wilhelm Reich? Or more about The Wilhelm Reich
Infant Trust or The Wilhelm Reich Museum? The Trust has available speakers to
address your group. For more details, please contact us at: wreich@rangeley.org.
LATEST E-MAIL UPDATE FORMAT
You’ve undoubtedly noticed that we’ve experimented with different formats in our last
few Updates. For years we’ve sent out the Updates as PDF attachments because we find
the PDF format attractive and easy to read. But there was some concern and speculation
on our end about how many recipients were or were not opening these attachments for
whatever reason. (Ultimately, of course, we have no way of telling.)
So our August and September 2009 Updates had the text imbedded in the actual e-mails.
Unfortunately some of the formatting of the text was distorted during transmission. We
then toyed around with the idea of buying some expensive software. But finally we came
to feel that the e-mail format is simply not the best or easiest format for reading lengthy
text of any kind, that the PDF format offers a more visually pleasing look for extended
reading.
Which is why we’re trying something a little different now: to maintain the PDF format
and save recipients from possible concerns about opening any attachments, we’ll be
posting the Updates on our website, and then e-mailing you the link to the posted Update.
We hope this is easy and convenient for you.
UNTIL NEXT MONTH
Thursday, January 14, 2010
Victor Peter seeks for English/American managers for his live perfomances
Contact: Victor Peter:> +351 92 792 30 21
Tuesday, January 12, 2010
Subliminal
Subliminal stimuli (English pronunciation: /sʌbˈlɪmənl/, literally "below threshold"), contrary to supraliminal stimuli or above threshold, is any sensory stimulation below an individual's absolute threshold for conscious perception. Visual stimuli may be quickly flashed before an individual may process it, or flashed and then masked thereby interrupting the processing. Audio stimuli may be played below audible volumes, similarly masked by other stimuli, or recorded backwards called backmasking. Introduced in 1897, the concept became controversial as subliminal messages in 1957 when marketing practitioners claimed its potential persuasive use. Subsequent scientific research, however, were unable replicate most of these marketing claims beyond a placebo.
Contents [hide]
1 Types
1.1 Textual
1.2 Images
1.3 Audio
2 Effectiveness
3 History
3.1 Origins
3.2 1950-1970
3.3 1970-2000
3.4 2000-Present
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
[edit] Types
[edit] Textual
Used in advertising to create familiarity with new products, subliminal messages make familiarity into a preference for the new products. Johan Karremans suggests that subliminal messages have an effect when the messages are goal-relevant.[1] Karremans did a study assessing whether subliminal priming of a brand name of a drink would affect a person’s choice of drink, and whether this effect is caused by the individual’s feelings of being thirsty.
His study sought to ascertain whether or not subliminally priming or preparing the participant with text or an image without being aware of it would make the partaker more familiar with the product. Half of his participants were subliminally primed with Lipton Ice ("Lipton Ice" was repeatedly flashed on a computer screen for 24 milliseconds), while the other half was primed with a control that did not consist of a brand. In his study he found that subliminally priming a brand name of a drink (Lipton Ice) made those who were thirsty want the Lipton Ice. Those who were not thirsty, however, were not influenced by the subliminal message since their goal was not to quench their thirst.[1]
Subconscious stimulus by single words is well known to be modestly effective in changing human behavior or emotions. This is evident by a pictorial advertisement that portrays four different types of rum. The phrase "U Buy" was embedded somewhere, backwards in the picture. A study was done to test the effectiveness of the alcohol ad. Before the study, participants were able to try to identify any hidden message in the ad, none found any. In the end, the study showed 80% of the subjects unconsciously perceived the backward message, meaning they showed a preference for that particular rum.[2]
Though many things can be perceived from subliminal messages, only a couple words or a single image of unconscious signals can be internalized. As only a word or image can be effectively perceived, the simpler features of that image or word will cause a change in behavior (i.e., beef is related to hunger). This was demonstrated by Byrne in 1959. The word "beef" was flashed for several, five millisecond intervals during a sixteen-minute movie to experimental subjects, while nothing was flashed to controlled subjects. Neither the experimental nor controlled subjects reported for a higher preference for beef sandwiches when given a list of five different foods, but the experimental subjects did rate themselves as hungrier than the controlled subjects when given a survey. If the subjects were flashed a whole sentence, the words would not be perceived and no effect would be expected.[3]
In 1983, in five studies with 52 undergraduate and graduate students, found that although subliminally flashing and the masking the words affects the availability of conscious processing, it however has little effect on visual processing itself. This suggests that perceptual processing is an unconscious activity that proceeds to all levels of available and redescription analysis. For example if flashed the word "butter" the individual would be quicker to identify the word "bread" than an unrelated word such as "bottle."[4]
[edit] Images
In 1991, Baldwin and others in two studies questioned whether priming individuals with images flashed for an instant may affect experiences of self. In the first study flashed images of the scowling face of their faculty adviser or an approving face of another before graduate students evaluated their own research ideas. In the second study, participants who were Catholic were asked to evaluate themselves after being flashed a disapproving face of the Pope or another unfamiliar face. In both studies the self-ratings were lower after the presentation of a disapproving face with personal significance, however in the second study there was no effect if the disapproving face were unfamiliar.[5]
In 1992, Krosnick and others in two studies with 162 undergraduates demonstrated that attitudes can develop without being aware of its antecedents. Individuals viewed nine slides of people performing familiar daily activities after being exposed to either an emotionally positive scene, such as a romantic couple or kittens, or an emotionally negative scene, such as a werewolf or a dead body between each slide. After exposure from which the individuals consciously perceived as a flash of light, the participants gave more positive personality traits to those people whose slides were associated with a emotionally positive scene and vice-versa. Despite the statistical difference, the subliminal messages had less of an impact on judgment than the slide's inherent level of physical attractiveness.[6] In order to determine whether these images affect an individual's evaluation of novel stimuli, unfamiliar Chinese characters, a study was conducted in 1993 which produced in similar results.[7]
In 1998, Bar and Biederman questioned whether an image flashed briefly would prime an individual's response. An image was flashed for 47 milliseconds and then a mask would interrupt the processing. Following the first presentation only one in seven individuals could identify the image, while after the second presentation fifteen and twenty minutes later one in three could identify the image.[8]
In 2004, in two studies 13 white individuals were exposed to either white or black faces, flashed either subliminally for 30 milliseconds or supraliminally for over half a second. Individuals showed greater fusiform gyrus and amygdala response to black faces than white, suggesting that the great amount of facial processing may be associated with a greater emotional response.[9]
In a 2005 study, individuals were exposed to subliminal image flashed 16.7 milliseconds that could signal a potential threat and again with a supraliminal image flashed for half a second. Individuals showed greater amygdala activity, although right amygdala showed greater response to subliminal fear and the left amygdala showed greater response to supraliminal fear. Furthermore supraliminal fear showed more sustained cortical activity, suggesting that subliminal fear may not entail conscious surveillance while supraliminal fear entails higher-order processing.[10]
In 2007, it was shown that subliminal exposure to the Israeli flag had a moderating effect on the political opinions and voting behaviors of Israeli volunteers. This effect was not present when a jumbled picture of the flag was subliminally shown.[11]
[edit] Audio
The manpage for the popular sound program SoX. The description of the "reverse" option says "Included for finding satanic subliminals."Backmasking is a recording technique in which a sound or message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward. During the 1970s, media reports raised a series of concerns of its impact on listeners,[12] stating that satanic messages were calling its listeners to commit suicide, murder, abuse drugs, or engage in sex—which were all rising at the time.[13][14]
In a series of scientific studies, individuals listening to messages played backwards with no accompanying music could discern: the gender of the speaker; whether the message was in English, French, or German; whether the sentence was declarative of a question; and occasionally a word or meaning of a sentence. However when comparing sentence pairs, individuals were more likely to be incorrect than if their response were by pure chance: if the message were spoken by different speakers; whether two sentences were semantically related; and label beyond pure chance whether a message was positive or negative in nature—suggesting that individual expectations influenced their response. Across a variety of tasks, the study were unable to find evidence that such messages affected an individual's behavior, and reasoned that if the individual could not discern the meaning of the message, then the presence of these messages would be more likely due to the listener's expectations than the existence of these messages in themselves.[12]
Some businesses claim improving an individual's memory or self-esteem while offering subliminal self-help tapes. These tapes did not produce an effect beyond a placebo, or an individual's expectation of their effectiveness.[15]
[edit] Effectiveness
The effectiveness of subliminal messaging have been demonstrated to prime individual responses and stimulate mild emotional activity.[8][6] Applications, however, often base themselves on the persuasiveness of the message. The near-consensus among research psychologists is that subliminal messages do not produce a powerful, enduring effect on behavior;[16] and that laboratory research reveals little effect beyond a subtle, fleeting effect on thinking. For example, priming thirsty people with a subliminal word may, for a brief period of time, make a thirst-quenching beverage advertisement more persuasive.[17] Research upon those claims of a lasting effects such as weight loss, smoking cessation, how music in popular culture may corrupt their listeners, how it may facilitate unconscious wishes in psychotherapy, and how market practitioners may exploit their customers—conclude that there is no effect beyond a placebo.[18] In a 1994 study comparing television commercials with the message either supraliminal or subliminal, individuals produced higher ratings with those that were supraliminal. Unexpectedly, individuals somehow were less likely to remember the subliminal message than if there were no message.[19]
[edit] History
See also: Instances of subliminal message and Subliminal messages in popular culture
[edit] Origins
The director of Yale Psychology laboratory Ph.D. E. W. Scripture published The New Psychology in 1897 (The Walter Scott Ltd, London), which described the basic principles of subliminal messages.[20]
In 1900, Knight Dunlap, an American professor of psychology, flashed an "imperceptible shadow" to subjects while showing them a Müller-Lyer illusion containing two lines with pointed arrows at both ends which create an illusion of different lengths. Dunlap claimed that the shadow influenced his subjects subliminally in their judgment of the lengths of the lines.
Although these results were not verified in a scientific study, American psychologist Harry Levi Hollingworth reported in an advertising textbook that such subliminal messages could be used by advertisers.[21]
During World War II, the tachistoscope, an instrument which projects pictures for an extremely brief period, was used to train soldiers to recognize enemy airplanes.[20] Today the tachistoscope is used to increase reading speed or to test sight.[22]
[edit] 1950-1970
In 1957, market researcher James Vicary claimed that quickly flashing messages on a movie screen, in Fort Lee, New Jersey, had influenced people to purchase more food and drinks. Vicary coined the term subliminal advertising and formed the Subliminal Projection Company based on a six-week test. Vicary claimed that during the presentation of the movie Picnic he used a tachistoscope to project the words "Drink Coca-Cola" and "Hungry? Eat popcorn" for 1/3000 of a second at five-second intervals. Vicary asserted that during the test, sales of popcorn and Coke in that New Jersey theater increased 57.8 percent and 18.1 percent respectively.[20][23]
However, in 1962 Vicary admitted to lying about the experiment and falsifying the results, the story itself being a marketing ploy.[24][25] An identical experiment conducted by Dr. Henry Link showed no increase in cola or popcorn sales.[23] A trip to Fort Lee, where the first experiment was alleged to have taken place, would have shown straight away that the small cinema there couldn't possibly have had 45,699 visitors through its doors in the space of 6 weeks. This has led people to believe that Vicary actually did not conduct his experiment at all.[23]
However, before Vicary's confession, his claims were promoted in Vance Packard's book The Hidden Persuaders,[26] and led to a public outcry, and to many conspiracy theories of governments and cults using the technique to their advantage.[27] The practice of subliminal advertising was subsequently banned in the United Kingdom and Australia,[21] and by American networks and the National Association of Broadcasters in 1958.[23]
But in 1958, Vicary conducted a television test in which he flashed the message "telephone now" hundreds of times during a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program, and found no noticeable increase in telephone calls.[20]
[edit] 1970-2000
In 1973, commercials in the United States and Canada for the game Hūsker Dū? flashed the message "Get it".[26] During the same year, Wilson Bryan Key's book Subliminal Seduction claimed that subliminal techniques were widely used in advertising.[23] Public concern was sufficient to cause the FCC to hold hearings in 1974. The hearings resulted in an FCC policy statement stating that subliminal advertising was "contrary to the public interest" and "intended to be deceptive".[23] Subliminal advertising was also banned in Canada following the broadcasting of Hūsker Dū? ads there.[20]
The December 16, 1973 episode of Columbo titled "Double Exposure", is based on subliminal messaging: it is used by the murderer, Dr. Bart Keppler, a motivational research specialist, played by Robert Culp, to lure his victim out of his seat during the viewing of a promotional film and by Lt. Columbo to bring Keppler back to the crime scene and incriminate him. Lt. Columbo is shown how subliminal cuts work in a scene mirroring James Vicary's experiment.[28][29]
In 1978, Wichita, Kansas TV station KAKE-TV received special permission from the police to place a subliminal message in a report on the BTK Killer (Bind, Torture, Kill) in an effort to get him to turn himself in. The subliminal message included the text "Now call the chief," as well as a pair of glasses. The glasses were included because when BTK murdered Nancy Fox, there was a pair of glasses lying upside down on her dresser; police felt that seeing the glasses might stir up remorse in the killer. The attempt was unsuccessful, and police reported no increased volume of calls afterward.[30]
A study conducted by the United Nations concluded that "the cultural implications of subliminal indoctrination is a major threat to human rights throughout the world."[31]
Campaigners have suggested subliminal messages appear in music. In 1985, two young men, James Vance and Raymond Belknap, attempted suicide. At the time of the shootings, Belknap died instantly. Vance was severely injured and survived. Their families were convinced it was because of a British rock band, Judas Priest. The families claimed subliminal messages told listeners to "do it" in the song "Better by You, Better Than Me". The case was taken to court and the families sought more than US$6 million in damages. The judge, Jerry Carr Whitehead said that freedom of speech protections would not apply to subliminal messages. He said he was not convinced the hidden messages actually existed on the album, but left the argument to attorneys.[32] The suit was eventually dismissed. In turn, he ruled it probably would not have been perceived without the "power of suggestion" or the young men would not have done it unless they really intended to.[33]
In 1985, Dr. Joe Stuessy testified to the United States Senate at the Parents Music Resource Center hearings that:
“ The message of a piece of heavy metal music may also be covert or subliminal. Sometimes subaudible tracks are mixed in underneath other, louder tracks. These are heard by the subconscious but not the conscious mind. Sometimes the messages are audible but are backwards, called backmasking. There is disagreement among experts regarding the effectiveness of subliminals. We need more research on that.[34] ”
Stuessy's written testimony stated that:
“ Some messages are presented to the listener backwards. While listening to a normal forward message (usually nonsensical), one is simultaneously being treated to a back-wards message. Some experts believe that while the conscious mind is trying to absorb the forward lyric, the subconscious is working overtime to decipher the backwards message.[35] ”
A few months after Judas Priest's acquittal, Michael Waller, the son of a Georgia minister, shot himself in the head while supposedly listening to Ozzy Osbourne's song Suicide Solution (despite the fact that the song Suicide Solution was not on the record [Ozzy Osbourne's Speak Of The Devil] found playing in his room when his suicide was discovered). His parents claimed that subliminal messages may have influenced his actions. The judge in that trial granted the summary judgment because the plaintiffs could not show that there was any subliminal material on the record. He noted, however, that if the plaintiffs had shown that subliminal content was present, the messages would not have received protection under the First Amendment because subliminal messages are, in principle, false, misleading or extremely limited in their social value (Waller v. Osbourne 1991). Justice Whitehead's ruling in the Judas Priest trial was cited to support his position.[36]
[edit] 2000-Present
During the 2000 U.S. presidential campaign, a television ad campaigning for Republican candidate George W. Bush showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word BUREAUCRATS flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, RATS.[37][38] The FCC looked into the matter,[39] but no penalties were ever assessed in the case.[citation needed]
A McDonald's logo appeared for one frame during the Food Network's Iron Chef America series on 2007-01-27, leading to claims that this was an instance of subliminal advertising. The Food Network replied that it was simply a glitch.[40]
On November 7, 2007, Network Ten Australia's broadcast of the ARIA Awards was called out for using subliminal advertising in an exposé by the Media Watch program on the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation).[41]
In February 2007, it was discovered that 87 Konami slot machines in Ontario (OLG) casinos displayed a brief winning hand image before the game would begin. Government officials worried that the image subliminally persuaded gamblers to continue gambling; the company claimed that the image was a coding error. The machines were removed pending a fix by Konami.[42]
In 2007, to mark the 50th anniversary of James Vicary's original experiment, it was recreated at the International Brand Marketing Conference MARKA 2007. As part of the "Hypnosis, subconscious triggers and branding" presentation 1,400 delegates watched part the opening credits of the film PICNIC that was used in the original experiment. They were exposed to 30 subliminal cuts over a 90 second period. When asked to choose one of two fictions brands, Delta and Theta, 81% of the delegates picked the brand suggested by the subliminal cuts, Delta.[43]
[edit] References
^ a b Karremans, J.; Stroebe, W.; Claus, J. (2006). "Beyond Vicary’s fantasies: the impact of subliminal priming and brand choice☆". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42: 792–798. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.002. edit
^ Key, W. B. (1973), Subliminal seduction: Ad media's manipulation of a not so innocent America, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0138590907
^ Byrne, D. (1959). "The effect of a subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses". Journal of Applied Psychology 43: 249–252. doi:10.1037/h0043194. edit
^ Marcel, A. (1983). "Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition*1". Cognitive Psychology 15 (2): 197–237. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(83)90009-9. PMID 6617135. edit
^ Lopez, D. F. (1990). "Priming relationship schemas: My advisor and the pope are watching me from the back of my mind". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 26: 435. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(90)90068-W. edit
^ a b Krosnick, J. A.; Betz, A. L.; Jussim, L. J.; Lynn, A. R. (1992). "Subliminal Conditioning of Attitudes". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18: 152. doi:10.1177/0146167292182006. edit
^ Murphy; Zajonc, RB (1993). "Affect, cognition, and awareness: affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures". Journal of personality and social psychology 64 (5): 723–39. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.723. PMID 8505704. edit
^ a b Bar, M.; Biederman, I. (1998). "Sublimal Visual Priming". Psychological Science 9: 464–469. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00086. edit
^ Cunningham, W. A.; Nezlek, J. B.; Banaji, M. R. (2004). "Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies of Prejudice" (Free full text). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30: 1332. doi:10.1177/0146167204264654. http://faculty.psy.ohio-state.edu/cunningham/pdf/cunningham.pspb.2004.pdf. Lay summary – Bradt, Steve (2004-12-09). edit
^ Williams, L. M.; Liddell, B. J.; Kemp, A. H.; Bryant, R. A.; Meares, R. A.; Peduto, A. S.; Gordon, E. (2006). "Amygdala–prefrontal dissociation of subliminal and supraliminal fear". Human Brain Mapping 27 (8): 652–661. doi:10.1002/hbm.20208. PMID 16281289. edit
^ Hassin, R. R.; Ferguson, M. J.; Shidlovski, D.; Gross, T. (2007). "Subliminal exposure to national flags affects political thought and behavior". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 19757. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704679104. edit
^ a b Vokey, JR; Read, JD (1985). "Subliminal messages. Between the devil and the media" (Full free text). The American psychologist 40 (11): 1231–9. PMID 4083611. http://www.d.umn.edu/~rvaidyan/mktg4731/subliminal.pdf. edit
^ Arnett, J. (1991). "Heavy metal music and reckless behavior among adolescents" (Full free text). Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20: 573–660. doi:10.1007/BF01537363. http://www.springerlink.com/content/x064w8n772m04xt7/fulltext.pdf. edit
^ Stack, S; Gundlach, J; Reeves, JL (1994). "The heavy metal subculture and suicide". Suicide & life-threatening behavior 24 (1): 15–23. ISSN 0363-0234. PMID 8203005. edit
^ Pratkanis, A.; Eskenazi, J.; Greenwald, A. (1994). "What You Expect is What You Believe (But Not Necessarily What You Get): A Test of the Effectiveness of Subliminal Self-Help Audiotapes". Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15: 251. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1503_3. edit
^ Pratkanis, A. R.; Greenwald, A. G. (1988). "Recent perspectives on unconscious processing: Still no marketing applications". Psychology and Marketing 5: 337. doi:10.1002/mar.4220050405. edit
^ Strahan, E. (2002). "Subliminal priming and persuasion: Striking while the iron is hot". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38: 556–568. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00502-4. edit
^ Moore, T. E. (1988). "The case against subliminal manipulation". Psychology and Marketing 5: 297–316. doi:10.1002/mar.4220050403. edit
^ Smith, K. H.; Rogers, M. (1994). "Effectiveness of subliminal messages in television commercials: Two experiments". Journal of Applied Psychology 79: 866. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.866. edit
^ a b c d e The Straight Dope: Does subliminal advertising work?, The Straight Dope, http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_187.html, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ a b Pratkanis, Anthony R. (Spring 1992), "The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion", Skeptical Inquirer (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal): pp. 260–272, http://www.csicop.org/si/9204/subliminal-persuasion.html, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ tachistoscope - Definitions from Dictionary.com
^ a b c d e f Urban Legends Reference Pages: Business (Subliminal Advertising), The Urban Legends Reference Pages, http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/popcorn.asp, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ Boese, Alex (2002). The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks, Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Contrived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Millennium, E. P. Dutton, ISBN 0-525-94678-0. pages. 137-38.
^ The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry: The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion by Anthony R. Pratkanis
^ a b Lantos, Geoffrey P. (PDF), The Absolute Threshold Level and Subliminal Messages, Stonehill College, http://faculty.stonehill.edu/glantos/Lantos1/PDF_Folder/BA344_PDF/Exercise%2046.pdf, retrieved 2007-03-01
^ Subliminal messages in movies and media, http://www.chokingonpopcorn.com/popcorn/?p=391, retrieved 2008-05-21 [citation needed]
^ Error - - New York Times
^ Re: [AMIA-L] Reply: "Sherlock Jr."
^ BTK Back
^ Hammarskjol, Dag (1974), 31st Session, 7 October 1974, E/Cn.4/1142/Add 2., United Nations Human Rights Commission
^ http://www.totse.com/en/ego/can_you_dance_to_it/jud-prst.html
^ Vance, J., et al. v. Judas Priest et al., No. 86-5844, 2nd Dist. Ct. Nev. (August 24, 1990)
^ U.S. Senate, page 118.
^ U.S. Senate, page 125.
^ http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html
^ Crowley, Candy. "Bush says 'RATS' ad not meant as subliminal message" CNN.com, 2000-9-12. Retrieved on December 16, 2006
^ Smoking Pistols: George "Rat Ad" Bush and the Subliminal Kid
^ 9/19/00 Speech by Commissioner Harold Furchtgott-Roth: The FCC's Investigation of "Subliminal Techniques:"
^ It was a glitch, not a subliminal ad, for McDonald's on Food Network, Canadian Press, 2007-01-25, http://www.cbc.ca/cp/media/070125/X01259AU.html, retrieved 2007-03-11
^ Subliminal advertising. - ninemsn Video
^ Agency asks slot-machine maker to halt subliminal messages
^ bizcovering.com: Hypnosis in Advertising
[edit] Further reading
Boese, Alex (2006), Hippo Eats Dwarf: A Field Guide to Hoaxes and Other B.S., Orlando: Harcourt, pp. 193–195, ISBN 0156030837
Dixon, Norman F. (1971), Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070941475
Greenwald, A. G. (1992). "New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed". American Psychologist 47 (6): 766–779. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.766. PMID 1616174. edit
Holender, D. (1986), "Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal", Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 (1): 1–23
Merikle, P. M.; Daneman, M. (1998), "Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception", Journal of Consciousness Studies 5 (1): 5–18
Watanabe, T.; N, J.; Sasaki, Y. (2001). "Perceptual learning without perception". Nature 413 (6858): 844. doi:10.1038/35101601. PMID 11677607. edit
Seitz, A. R.; Watanabe, T. (2003). "Psychophysics: is subliminal learning really passive?". Nature 422 (6927): 36. doi:10.1038/422036a. PMID 12621425. edit
United States Senate, Ninety-ninth Congress, First Session on Contents of Music and the Lyrics of Records (September 19, 1985), Record Labeling: Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, http://www.joesapt.net/superlink/shrg99-529/
Source: Wikipedia
Contents [hide]
1 Types
1.1 Textual
1.2 Images
1.3 Audio
2 Effectiveness
3 History
3.1 Origins
3.2 1950-1970
3.3 1970-2000
3.4 2000-Present
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
[edit] Types
[edit] Textual
Used in advertising to create familiarity with new products, subliminal messages make familiarity into a preference for the new products. Johan Karremans suggests that subliminal messages have an effect when the messages are goal-relevant.[1] Karremans did a study assessing whether subliminal priming of a brand name of a drink would affect a person’s choice of drink, and whether this effect is caused by the individual’s feelings of being thirsty.
His study sought to ascertain whether or not subliminally priming or preparing the participant with text or an image without being aware of it would make the partaker more familiar with the product. Half of his participants were subliminally primed with Lipton Ice ("Lipton Ice" was repeatedly flashed on a computer screen for 24 milliseconds), while the other half was primed with a control that did not consist of a brand. In his study he found that subliminally priming a brand name of a drink (Lipton Ice) made those who were thirsty want the Lipton Ice. Those who were not thirsty, however, were not influenced by the subliminal message since their goal was not to quench their thirst.[1]
Subconscious stimulus by single words is well known to be modestly effective in changing human behavior or emotions. This is evident by a pictorial advertisement that portrays four different types of rum. The phrase "U Buy" was embedded somewhere, backwards in the picture. A study was done to test the effectiveness of the alcohol ad. Before the study, participants were able to try to identify any hidden message in the ad, none found any. In the end, the study showed 80% of the subjects unconsciously perceived the backward message, meaning they showed a preference for that particular rum.[2]
Though many things can be perceived from subliminal messages, only a couple words or a single image of unconscious signals can be internalized. As only a word or image can be effectively perceived, the simpler features of that image or word will cause a change in behavior (i.e., beef is related to hunger). This was demonstrated by Byrne in 1959. The word "beef" was flashed for several, five millisecond intervals during a sixteen-minute movie to experimental subjects, while nothing was flashed to controlled subjects. Neither the experimental nor controlled subjects reported for a higher preference for beef sandwiches when given a list of five different foods, but the experimental subjects did rate themselves as hungrier than the controlled subjects when given a survey. If the subjects were flashed a whole sentence, the words would not be perceived and no effect would be expected.[3]
In 1983, in five studies with 52 undergraduate and graduate students, found that although subliminally flashing and the masking the words affects the availability of conscious processing, it however has little effect on visual processing itself. This suggests that perceptual processing is an unconscious activity that proceeds to all levels of available and redescription analysis. For example if flashed the word "butter" the individual would be quicker to identify the word "bread" than an unrelated word such as "bottle."[4]
[edit] Images
In 1991, Baldwin and others in two studies questioned whether priming individuals with images flashed for an instant may affect experiences of self. In the first study flashed images of the scowling face of their faculty adviser or an approving face of another before graduate students evaluated their own research ideas. In the second study, participants who were Catholic were asked to evaluate themselves after being flashed a disapproving face of the Pope or another unfamiliar face. In both studies the self-ratings were lower after the presentation of a disapproving face with personal significance, however in the second study there was no effect if the disapproving face were unfamiliar.[5]
In 1992, Krosnick and others in two studies with 162 undergraduates demonstrated that attitudes can develop without being aware of its antecedents. Individuals viewed nine slides of people performing familiar daily activities after being exposed to either an emotionally positive scene, such as a romantic couple or kittens, or an emotionally negative scene, such as a werewolf or a dead body between each slide. After exposure from which the individuals consciously perceived as a flash of light, the participants gave more positive personality traits to those people whose slides were associated with a emotionally positive scene and vice-versa. Despite the statistical difference, the subliminal messages had less of an impact on judgment than the slide's inherent level of physical attractiveness.[6] In order to determine whether these images affect an individual's evaluation of novel stimuli, unfamiliar Chinese characters, a study was conducted in 1993 which produced in similar results.[7]
In 1998, Bar and Biederman questioned whether an image flashed briefly would prime an individual's response. An image was flashed for 47 milliseconds and then a mask would interrupt the processing. Following the first presentation only one in seven individuals could identify the image, while after the second presentation fifteen and twenty minutes later one in three could identify the image.[8]
In 2004, in two studies 13 white individuals were exposed to either white or black faces, flashed either subliminally for 30 milliseconds or supraliminally for over half a second. Individuals showed greater fusiform gyrus and amygdala response to black faces than white, suggesting that the great amount of facial processing may be associated with a greater emotional response.[9]
In a 2005 study, individuals were exposed to subliminal image flashed 16.7 milliseconds that could signal a potential threat and again with a supraliminal image flashed for half a second. Individuals showed greater amygdala activity, although right amygdala showed greater response to subliminal fear and the left amygdala showed greater response to supraliminal fear. Furthermore supraliminal fear showed more sustained cortical activity, suggesting that subliminal fear may not entail conscious surveillance while supraliminal fear entails higher-order processing.[10]
In 2007, it was shown that subliminal exposure to the Israeli flag had a moderating effect on the political opinions and voting behaviors of Israeli volunteers. This effect was not present when a jumbled picture of the flag was subliminally shown.[11]
[edit] Audio
The manpage for the popular sound program SoX. The description of the "reverse" option says "Included for finding satanic subliminals."Backmasking is a recording technique in which a sound or message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward. During the 1970s, media reports raised a series of concerns of its impact on listeners,[12] stating that satanic messages were calling its listeners to commit suicide, murder, abuse drugs, or engage in sex—which were all rising at the time.[13][14]
In a series of scientific studies, individuals listening to messages played backwards with no accompanying music could discern: the gender of the speaker; whether the message was in English, French, or German; whether the sentence was declarative of a question; and occasionally a word or meaning of a sentence. However when comparing sentence pairs, individuals were more likely to be incorrect than if their response were by pure chance: if the message were spoken by different speakers; whether two sentences were semantically related; and label beyond pure chance whether a message was positive or negative in nature—suggesting that individual expectations influenced their response. Across a variety of tasks, the study were unable to find evidence that such messages affected an individual's behavior, and reasoned that if the individual could not discern the meaning of the message, then the presence of these messages would be more likely due to the listener's expectations than the existence of these messages in themselves.[12]
Some businesses claim improving an individual's memory or self-esteem while offering subliminal self-help tapes. These tapes did not produce an effect beyond a placebo, or an individual's expectation of their effectiveness.[15]
[edit] Effectiveness
The effectiveness of subliminal messaging have been demonstrated to prime individual responses and stimulate mild emotional activity.[8][6] Applications, however, often base themselves on the persuasiveness of the message. The near-consensus among research psychologists is that subliminal messages do not produce a powerful, enduring effect on behavior;[16] and that laboratory research reveals little effect beyond a subtle, fleeting effect on thinking. For example, priming thirsty people with a subliminal word may, for a brief period of time, make a thirst-quenching beverage advertisement more persuasive.[17] Research upon those claims of a lasting effects such as weight loss, smoking cessation, how music in popular culture may corrupt their listeners, how it may facilitate unconscious wishes in psychotherapy, and how market practitioners may exploit their customers—conclude that there is no effect beyond a placebo.[18] In a 1994 study comparing television commercials with the message either supraliminal or subliminal, individuals produced higher ratings with those that were supraliminal. Unexpectedly, individuals somehow were less likely to remember the subliminal message than if there were no message.[19]
[edit] History
See also: Instances of subliminal message and Subliminal messages in popular culture
[edit] Origins
The director of Yale Psychology laboratory Ph.D. E. W. Scripture published The New Psychology in 1897 (The Walter Scott Ltd, London), which described the basic principles of subliminal messages.[20]
In 1900, Knight Dunlap, an American professor of psychology, flashed an "imperceptible shadow" to subjects while showing them a Müller-Lyer illusion containing two lines with pointed arrows at both ends which create an illusion of different lengths. Dunlap claimed that the shadow influenced his subjects subliminally in their judgment of the lengths of the lines.
Although these results were not verified in a scientific study, American psychologist Harry Levi Hollingworth reported in an advertising textbook that such subliminal messages could be used by advertisers.[21]
During World War II, the tachistoscope, an instrument which projects pictures for an extremely brief period, was used to train soldiers to recognize enemy airplanes.[20] Today the tachistoscope is used to increase reading speed or to test sight.[22]
[edit] 1950-1970
In 1957, market researcher James Vicary claimed that quickly flashing messages on a movie screen, in Fort Lee, New Jersey, had influenced people to purchase more food and drinks. Vicary coined the term subliminal advertising and formed the Subliminal Projection Company based on a six-week test. Vicary claimed that during the presentation of the movie Picnic he used a tachistoscope to project the words "Drink Coca-Cola" and "Hungry? Eat popcorn" for 1/3000 of a second at five-second intervals. Vicary asserted that during the test, sales of popcorn and Coke in that New Jersey theater increased 57.8 percent and 18.1 percent respectively.[20][23]
However, in 1962 Vicary admitted to lying about the experiment and falsifying the results, the story itself being a marketing ploy.[24][25] An identical experiment conducted by Dr. Henry Link showed no increase in cola or popcorn sales.[23] A trip to Fort Lee, where the first experiment was alleged to have taken place, would have shown straight away that the small cinema there couldn't possibly have had 45,699 visitors through its doors in the space of 6 weeks. This has led people to believe that Vicary actually did not conduct his experiment at all.[23]
However, before Vicary's confession, his claims were promoted in Vance Packard's book The Hidden Persuaders,[26] and led to a public outcry, and to many conspiracy theories of governments and cults using the technique to their advantage.[27] The practice of subliminal advertising was subsequently banned in the United Kingdom and Australia,[21] and by American networks and the National Association of Broadcasters in 1958.[23]
But in 1958, Vicary conducted a television test in which he flashed the message "telephone now" hundreds of times during a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program, and found no noticeable increase in telephone calls.[20]
[edit] 1970-2000
In 1973, commercials in the United States and Canada for the game Hūsker Dū? flashed the message "Get it".[26] During the same year, Wilson Bryan Key's book Subliminal Seduction claimed that subliminal techniques were widely used in advertising.[23] Public concern was sufficient to cause the FCC to hold hearings in 1974. The hearings resulted in an FCC policy statement stating that subliminal advertising was "contrary to the public interest" and "intended to be deceptive".[23] Subliminal advertising was also banned in Canada following the broadcasting of Hūsker Dū? ads there.[20]
The December 16, 1973 episode of Columbo titled "Double Exposure", is based on subliminal messaging: it is used by the murderer, Dr. Bart Keppler, a motivational research specialist, played by Robert Culp, to lure his victim out of his seat during the viewing of a promotional film and by Lt. Columbo to bring Keppler back to the crime scene and incriminate him. Lt. Columbo is shown how subliminal cuts work in a scene mirroring James Vicary's experiment.[28][29]
In 1978, Wichita, Kansas TV station KAKE-TV received special permission from the police to place a subliminal message in a report on the BTK Killer (Bind, Torture, Kill) in an effort to get him to turn himself in. The subliminal message included the text "Now call the chief," as well as a pair of glasses. The glasses were included because when BTK murdered Nancy Fox, there was a pair of glasses lying upside down on her dresser; police felt that seeing the glasses might stir up remorse in the killer. The attempt was unsuccessful, and police reported no increased volume of calls afterward.[30]
A study conducted by the United Nations concluded that "the cultural implications of subliminal indoctrination is a major threat to human rights throughout the world."[31]
Campaigners have suggested subliminal messages appear in music. In 1985, two young men, James Vance and Raymond Belknap, attempted suicide. At the time of the shootings, Belknap died instantly. Vance was severely injured and survived. Their families were convinced it was because of a British rock band, Judas Priest. The families claimed subliminal messages told listeners to "do it" in the song "Better by You, Better Than Me". The case was taken to court and the families sought more than US$6 million in damages. The judge, Jerry Carr Whitehead said that freedom of speech protections would not apply to subliminal messages. He said he was not convinced the hidden messages actually existed on the album, but left the argument to attorneys.[32] The suit was eventually dismissed. In turn, he ruled it probably would not have been perceived without the "power of suggestion" or the young men would not have done it unless they really intended to.[33]
In 1985, Dr. Joe Stuessy testified to the United States Senate at the Parents Music Resource Center hearings that:
“ The message of a piece of heavy metal music may also be covert or subliminal. Sometimes subaudible tracks are mixed in underneath other, louder tracks. These are heard by the subconscious but not the conscious mind. Sometimes the messages are audible but are backwards, called backmasking. There is disagreement among experts regarding the effectiveness of subliminals. We need more research on that.[34] ”
Stuessy's written testimony stated that:
“ Some messages are presented to the listener backwards. While listening to a normal forward message (usually nonsensical), one is simultaneously being treated to a back-wards message. Some experts believe that while the conscious mind is trying to absorb the forward lyric, the subconscious is working overtime to decipher the backwards message.[35] ”
A few months after Judas Priest's acquittal, Michael Waller, the son of a Georgia minister, shot himself in the head while supposedly listening to Ozzy Osbourne's song Suicide Solution (despite the fact that the song Suicide Solution was not on the record [Ozzy Osbourne's Speak Of The Devil] found playing in his room when his suicide was discovered). His parents claimed that subliminal messages may have influenced his actions. The judge in that trial granted the summary judgment because the plaintiffs could not show that there was any subliminal material on the record. He noted, however, that if the plaintiffs had shown that subliminal content was present, the messages would not have received protection under the First Amendment because subliminal messages are, in principle, false, misleading or extremely limited in their social value (Waller v. Osbourne 1991). Justice Whitehead's ruling in the Judas Priest trial was cited to support his position.[36]
[edit] 2000-Present
During the 2000 U.S. presidential campaign, a television ad campaigning for Republican candidate George W. Bush showed words (and parts thereof) scaling from the foreground to the background on a television screen. When the word BUREAUCRATS flashed on the screen, one frame showed only the last part, RATS.[37][38] The FCC looked into the matter,[39] but no penalties were ever assessed in the case.[citation needed]
A McDonald's logo appeared for one frame during the Food Network's Iron Chef America series on 2007-01-27, leading to claims that this was an instance of subliminal advertising. The Food Network replied that it was simply a glitch.[40]
On November 7, 2007, Network Ten Australia's broadcast of the ARIA Awards was called out for using subliminal advertising in an exposé by the Media Watch program on the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation).[41]
In February 2007, it was discovered that 87 Konami slot machines in Ontario (OLG) casinos displayed a brief winning hand image before the game would begin. Government officials worried that the image subliminally persuaded gamblers to continue gambling; the company claimed that the image was a coding error. The machines were removed pending a fix by Konami.[42]
In 2007, to mark the 50th anniversary of James Vicary's original experiment, it was recreated at the International Brand Marketing Conference MARKA 2007. As part of the "Hypnosis, subconscious triggers and branding" presentation 1,400 delegates watched part the opening credits of the film PICNIC that was used in the original experiment. They were exposed to 30 subliminal cuts over a 90 second period. When asked to choose one of two fictions brands, Delta and Theta, 81% of the delegates picked the brand suggested by the subliminal cuts, Delta.[43]
[edit] References
^ a b Karremans, J.; Stroebe, W.; Claus, J. (2006). "Beyond Vicary’s fantasies: the impact of subliminal priming and brand choice☆". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42: 792–798. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.002. edit
^ Key, W. B. (1973), Subliminal seduction: Ad media's manipulation of a not so innocent America, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0138590907
^ Byrne, D. (1959). "The effect of a subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses". Journal of Applied Psychology 43: 249–252. doi:10.1037/h0043194. edit
^ Marcel, A. (1983). "Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition*1". Cognitive Psychology 15 (2): 197–237. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(83)90009-9. PMID 6617135. edit
^ Lopez, D. F. (1990). "Priming relationship schemas: My advisor and the pope are watching me from the back of my mind". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 26: 435. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(90)90068-W. edit
^ a b Krosnick, J. A.; Betz, A. L.; Jussim, L. J.; Lynn, A. R. (1992). "Subliminal Conditioning of Attitudes". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18: 152. doi:10.1177/0146167292182006. edit
^ Murphy; Zajonc, RB (1993). "Affect, cognition, and awareness: affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures". Journal of personality and social psychology 64 (5): 723–39. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.723. PMID 8505704. edit
^ a b Bar, M.; Biederman, I. (1998). "Sublimal Visual Priming". Psychological Science 9: 464–469. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00086. edit
^ Cunningham, W. A.; Nezlek, J. B.; Banaji, M. R. (2004). "Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies of Prejudice" (Free full text). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30: 1332. doi:10.1177/0146167204264654. http://faculty.psy.ohio-state.edu/cunningham/pdf/cunningham.pspb.2004.pdf. Lay summary – Bradt, Steve (2004-12-09). edit
^ Williams, L. M.; Liddell, B. J.; Kemp, A. H.; Bryant, R. A.; Meares, R. A.; Peduto, A. S.; Gordon, E. (2006). "Amygdala–prefrontal dissociation of subliminal and supraliminal fear". Human Brain Mapping 27 (8): 652–661. doi:10.1002/hbm.20208. PMID 16281289. edit
^ Hassin, R. R.; Ferguson, M. J.; Shidlovski, D.; Gross, T. (2007). "Subliminal exposure to national flags affects political thought and behavior". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 19757. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704679104. edit
^ a b Vokey, JR; Read, JD (1985). "Subliminal messages. Between the devil and the media" (Full free text). The American psychologist 40 (11): 1231–9. PMID 4083611. http://www.d.umn.edu/~rvaidyan/mktg4731/subliminal.pdf. edit
^ Arnett, J. (1991). "Heavy metal music and reckless behavior among adolescents" (Full free text). Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20: 573–660. doi:10.1007/BF01537363. http://www.springerlink.com/content/x064w8n772m04xt7/fulltext.pdf. edit
^ Stack, S; Gundlach, J; Reeves, JL (1994). "The heavy metal subculture and suicide". Suicide & life-threatening behavior 24 (1): 15–23. ISSN 0363-0234. PMID 8203005. edit
^ Pratkanis, A.; Eskenazi, J.; Greenwald, A. (1994). "What You Expect is What You Believe (But Not Necessarily What You Get): A Test of the Effectiveness of Subliminal Self-Help Audiotapes". Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15: 251. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1503_3. edit
^ Pratkanis, A. R.; Greenwald, A. G. (1988). "Recent perspectives on unconscious processing: Still no marketing applications". Psychology and Marketing 5: 337. doi:10.1002/mar.4220050405. edit
^ Strahan, E. (2002). "Subliminal priming and persuasion: Striking while the iron is hot". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38: 556–568. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00502-4. edit
^ Moore, T. E. (1988). "The case against subliminal manipulation". Psychology and Marketing 5: 297–316. doi:10.1002/mar.4220050403. edit
^ Smith, K. H.; Rogers, M. (1994). "Effectiveness of subliminal messages in television commercials: Two experiments". Journal of Applied Psychology 79: 866. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.866. edit
^ a b c d e The Straight Dope: Does subliminal advertising work?, The Straight Dope, http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_187.html, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ a b Pratkanis, Anthony R. (Spring 1992), "The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion", Skeptical Inquirer (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal): pp. 260–272, http://www.csicop.org/si/9204/subliminal-persuasion.html, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ tachistoscope - Definitions from Dictionary.com
^ a b c d e f Urban Legends Reference Pages: Business (Subliminal Advertising), The Urban Legends Reference Pages, http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/popcorn.asp, retrieved 2006-08-11
^ Boese, Alex (2002). The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks, Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Contrived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Millennium, E. P. Dutton, ISBN 0-525-94678-0. pages. 137-38.
^ The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry: The Cargo-Cult Science of Subliminal Persuasion by Anthony R. Pratkanis
^ a b Lantos, Geoffrey P. (PDF), The Absolute Threshold Level and Subliminal Messages, Stonehill College, http://faculty.stonehill.edu/glantos/Lantos1/PDF_Folder/BA344_PDF/Exercise%2046.pdf, retrieved 2007-03-01
^ Subliminal messages in movies and media, http://www.chokingonpopcorn.com/popcorn/?p=391, retrieved 2008-05-21 [citation needed]
^ Error - - New York Times
^ Re: [AMIA-L] Reply: "Sherlock Jr."
^ BTK Back
^ Hammarskjol, Dag (1974), 31st Session, 7 October 1974, E/Cn.4/1142/Add 2., United Nations Human Rights Commission
^ http://www.totse.com/en/ego/can_you_dance_to_it/jud-prst.html
^ Vance, J., et al. v. Judas Priest et al., No. 86-5844, 2nd Dist. Ct. Nev. (August 24, 1990)
^ U.S. Senate, page 118.
^ U.S. Senate, page 125.
^ http://www.csicop.org/si/9611/judas_priest.html
^ Crowley, Candy. "Bush says 'RATS' ad not meant as subliminal message" CNN.com, 2000-9-12. Retrieved on December 16, 2006
^ Smoking Pistols: George "Rat Ad" Bush and the Subliminal Kid
^ 9/19/00 Speech by Commissioner Harold Furchtgott-Roth: The FCC's Investigation of "Subliminal Techniques:"
^ It was a glitch, not a subliminal ad, for McDonald's on Food Network, Canadian Press, 2007-01-25, http://www.cbc.ca/cp/media/070125/X01259AU.html, retrieved 2007-03-11
^ Subliminal advertising. - ninemsn Video
^ Agency asks slot-machine maker to halt subliminal messages
^ bizcovering.com: Hypnosis in Advertising
[edit] Further reading
Boese, Alex (2006), Hippo Eats Dwarf: A Field Guide to Hoaxes and Other B.S., Orlando: Harcourt, pp. 193–195, ISBN 0156030837
Dixon, Norman F. (1971), Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070941475
Greenwald, A. G. (1992). "New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed". American Psychologist 47 (6): 766–779. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.766. PMID 1616174. edit
Holender, D. (1986), "Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal", Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 (1): 1–23
Merikle, P. M.; Daneman, M. (1998), "Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception", Journal of Consciousness Studies 5 (1): 5–18
Watanabe, T.; N, J.; Sasaki, Y. (2001). "Perceptual learning without perception". Nature 413 (6858): 844. doi:10.1038/35101601. PMID 11677607. edit
Seitz, A. R.; Watanabe, T. (2003). "Psychophysics: is subliminal learning really passive?". Nature 422 (6927): 36. doi:10.1038/422036a. PMID 12621425. edit
United States Senate, Ninety-ninth Congress, First Session on Contents of Music and the Lyrics of Records (September 19, 1985), Record Labeling: Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, http://www.joesapt.net/superlink/shrg99-529/
Source: Wikipedia
Monday, January 11, 2010
Yaşar Kemal
Yaşar Kemal (born Kemal Sadık Gökçeli[1] 1923) is one of Turkey's leading writers.[2][3] He has long been a candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature, on the strength of Memed, My Hawk.[4]
As an outspoken intellectual, he does not hesitate to speak on sensitive issues such as the plight of the ethnic Kurds in Southeastern Turkey.[5] His activism resulted in a twenty-month suspended jail sentence, on charges of advocating separatism.[6]
Contents [hide]
1 Life
1.1 Marriages
2 Oeuvre
3 Bibliography
4 Awards and Distinctions
5 References
[edit] Life
Turkish
literature
By category
Epic tradition
Orhon
Dede Korkut · Köroğlu
Folk tradition
Folk literature
Folklore
Ottoman era
Poetry · Prose
Republican era
Poetry · Prose
Kemal, who describes himself as a Turk of Kurdish descent[6], was born in Hemite (now Gökçedam), a hamlet in the province of Osmaniye in southern Turkey. His parents were from Van, who came into Çukurova during the First World War. Kemal had a difficult childhood because he lost his right eye due to a knife accident, when his father was slaughtering a sheep on Eid al-Adha, and had to witness as his father was stabbed to death by his adoptive son Yusuf while praying in a mosque when he was five years old.[1] This traumatic experience left Kemal with a speech impediment, which lasted until he was twelve years old. At nine he started school in a neighboring village and continued his formal education in Kadirli, Osmaniye Province.[1]
Kemal was a locally noted bard before he started school, but was unappreciated by his widowed mother until he composed an elegy on the death of one of her eight brothers, all bandits.[7] However, he forgot it and became interested in writing as a means to record his work when he questioned an itinerant peddler, who was doing his accounts. Ultimately, his village paid his way to university in Istanbul.[7]
He worked for a while for rich farmers, guarding their river water against other farmers' unauthorized irrigation. However, instead he taught the poor farmers how to steal the water undetected, by taking it at night.[7]
Later he worked as a letter-writer, then as a journalist, and finally as a novelist. He said that the Turkish police took his first two novels.[7]
[edit] Marriages
In 1952, Yaşar Kemal married Thilda Serrero,[8] a member of a prominent Sephardi Jewish family in Istanbul. Her grandfather, Jak Mandil Pasha, was the chief physician of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II.[9] She translated 17 of her husband’s works into the English language.[10] Thilda died on January 17, 2001 (aged 78) from pulmonary complications at a hospital in Istanbul, and was laid to rest at Zincirlikuyu Cemetery.[10] Thilda is survived by her hushand, her son Raşit and a grandchild.[10]
Yaşar Kemal remarried on August 1, 2002 with Ayşe Semiha Baban, a lecturer for public relations at Bilgi University in Istanbul. She was educated at the American University of Beirut, Bosphorus University and Harvard University.[11]
[edit] Oeuvre
“ I don't write about issues, I don't write for an audience, I don't even write for myself. I just write. ”
—Interview with The Guardian.[12]
He published his first book Ağıtlar ("Ballads") in 1943, which was a compilation of folkloric themes. This book brings to light many long forgotten rhymes and ballads and Kemal had started to collect these ballads at the age of 16.[1] His first stories Bebek ("The Baby"), Dükkancı ("The Shopkeeper"), Memet ile Memet ("Memet and Memet") were published in 1950. He had written his first story Pis Hikaye ("The Dirty Story") in 1944, while he was serving in the military, in Kayseri. Then he published his book of short stories Sarı Sıcak ("Yellow Heat") in 1952. The initial point of his works was the toil of the people of the Çukurova plains and he based the themes of his writings on the lives and sufferings of these people. Yaşar Kemal has used the legends and stories of Anatolia extensively as the basis of his works.[1]
He received international acclaim with the publication of Memed, My Hawk (Turkish: İnce Memed) in 1955. In İnce Memed, Yaşar Kemal criticizes the fabric of the society through a legendary hero, a protagonist, who flees to the mountains as a result of the oppression of the Aghas. One of the most famous living writers in Turkey, Kemal is noted for his command of the language and lyrical description of bucolic Turkish life. He has been awarded 19 literary prizes so far and nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.
His 1955 novel Teneke was adapted into a theatrical play, which was staged for almost one year in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the country where he lived for about two years in the late 1970s.[13] Italian composer Fabio Vacchi adapted the same novel with the original title into an opera of three acts, which premiered at the Teatro alla Scala in Milano, Italy in 2007.
Kemal lays claim to having recreated Turkish as a literary language, by bringing in the vernacular, following Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's sterilization of Turkish by removing Persian and Arabic elements.[7]
[edit] Bibliography
Stories
Sarı Sıcak, ("Yellow Heat") (1952)
Novels
İnce Memed ("Memed, My Hawk") (1955)
Teneke ("The Drumming-Out") (1955)
Orta Direk ("The Wind from the Plain") (1960)
Yer Demir Gök Bakır ("Iron Earth, Copper Sky") (1963)
Ölmez Otu ("The Undying Grass") (1968)
Ince Memed II ("They Burn the Thistles") (1969)
Akçasazın Ağaları/Demirciler Çarşısı Cinayeti ("The Agas of Akchasaz Trilogy"/"Murder in the Ironsmiths Market") (1974)
Akçasazın Ağaları/Yusufcuk Yusuf ("The Agas of Akchasaz Trilogy"/"Yusuf, Little Yusuf") (1975)
Yılanı Öldürseler ("To Crush the Serpent") (1976)
Al Gözüm Seyreyle Salih ("The Saga of a Seagull") (1976)
Allahın Askerleri ("God’s Soldiers") (1978)
Kuşlar da Gitti ("The Birds Have Also Gone: Long Stories") (1978)
Deniz Küstü ("The Sea-Crossed Fisherman") (1978)
Hüyükteki Nar Ağacı ("The Pomegranate on the Knoll") (1982)
Yağmurcuk Kuşu/Kimsecik I ("Kimsecik I - Little Nobody I") (1980)
Kale Kapısı/Kimsecik II ("Kimsecik II - Little Nobody II")(1985)
Kanın Sesi/Kimsecik III ("Kimsecik III - Little Nobody III") (1991)
Fırat Suyu Kan Akıyor Baksana ("Look, the Euphrates is Flowing with Blood") (1997)
Karıncanın Su İçtiği ("Ant Drinking Water") (2002)
Tanyeri Horozları ("The Cocks of Dawn") (2002)
Epic Novels
Üç Anadolu Efsanesi ("Three Anatolian Legends or Anatolian Tales") (1967)
Ağrıdağı Efsanesi ("The Legend of Mount Ararat") (1970)
Binboğalar Efsanesi ("The Legend of the Thousand Bulls") (1971)
Çakırcalı Efe* ("The Life Stories of the Famous Bandit Çakircali") (1972)
Reportages
Yanan Ormanlarda 50 Gün ("Fifty Days in the Burning Forests") (1955)
Çukurova Yana Yana ("While Çukurova Burns") (1955)
Peribacaları ("The Fairy Chimneys") (1957)
Bu Diyar Baştan Başa ("Collected reportages") (1971)
Bir Bulut Kaynıyor ("Collected reportages") (1974)
Experimental Works
Ağıtlar ("Ballads") (1943)
Taş Çatlasa ("At Most") (1961)
Baldaki Tuz ("The Salt in the Honey") (1959-74 newspaper articles)
Gökyüzü Mavi Kaldı ("The Sky remained Blue") (collection of folk literature in collaboration with S. Eyüboğlu)
Ağacın Çürüğü ("The Rotting Tree") (Artciles and Speeches) (1980)
Yayımlanmamış 10 Ağıt ("10 Unpublished Ballads") (1985)
Sarı Defterdekiler ("Contents of the Yellow Notebook") (Collected Folkloric works) (1997)
Ustadır Arı ("The Expert Bee") (1995)
Zulmün Artsın ("Increase Your Oppression") (1995)
Children's Books
Filler Sultanı ile Kırmızı Sakallı Topal Karınca ("The Sultan of the Elephants and the Red-Bearded Lame Ant") (1977)
[edit] Awards and Distinctions
"Seven Days in the World's Largest Farm" reportage series, Journalist's Association Prize, 1955
Varlik Prize for Ince Memed ("Memed, My Hawk"), 1956
Ilhan Iskender Award for the play adapted from his book with the same name, Teneke ("The Drumming-Out"), 1966
The International Nancy Theatre Festival - First Prize for Teneke ("The Drumming-Out"), 1966
Madarli Novel Award for Demirciler Çarşısı ("Murder in the Ironsmith's Market"), 1974
Choix du Syndicat des Critiques Littéraires pour le meilleur roman etranger (Eté/Automne 1977) pour Terre de Fer, Ciel de Cuivre ("Yer Demir, Gök Bakır").
Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger 1978 pour L'Herbe qui ne meurt pas (Ölmez Otu); Paris, Janvier 1979.
Prix mondial Cino Del Duca decerné pour contributions a l'humanisme moderne; Paris, Octobre 1982.
Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur de France; Paris, 1984.
The Sedat Simavi Foundation Award for Literature; Istanbul, Turkey, 1985.
Paris, Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres, 1988
Doctor Honoris Causa, Strasbourg University, France, 1991.
Doctor Honoris Causa, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey, 1992.
Lillian Hellman/Dashiell Hammett Award for Courage in Response to Repression, Human Rights Watch, USA, 1996.
Peace Prize of the German Book Trade, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1997.
Premio Internazionale Nonino for collected works, Italy, 1997
Bordeaux, Prix Ecureuit de Littérature Etrangère, 1998
Honorary Doctorate, Bilkent University, 2002
Z. Homer poetry Award, 2003
Savanos Prize (Thessalonika-Greece), 2003
Turkish Publisher's Association Lifetime Achievement Award, 2003
Presidential Cultural and Artistic Grand Prize, 2008[14]
Honorary Doctorate, Bogazici University, 2009
Honorary Doctorate, Çukurova University, 2009 [15]
[edit] References
^ a b c d e Yaşar Kemal - YKY
^ Ertan, Nazlan (1997-03-06). "French pay tribute to Yasar Kemal". Turkish Daily News. Archived from the original on 2008-11-15. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/1997/03/french-pay-tribute-to-yasar-kemal.html.
^ Perrier, Jean-Louis (1997-03-04). "Yachar Kemal, conteur et imprécateur" (in French). Le Monde. http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=251930. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
^ "Ölene kadar Nobel adayı olacağım" (in Turkish). Hurriyet. 2007-07-02. http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=5621617&tarih=2007-07-02. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
^ Norman, Roger (1997-06-05). "Yasar Kemal and the last of the nomads". Turkish Daily News (Hürriyet). http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-503844. Retrieved 2008-12-15. "...for Yasar Kemal has become perhaps the best known champion of human rights in Turkey, the godfather of freedom of conscience. He is no stranger to prison and currently has a suspended prison sentence hanging over him."
^ a b "Yasar Kemal asks Germans not to mistreat Turks". Turkish Daily News. Reuters. 1997-10-19. Archived from the original on 2008-11-14. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/1997/10/yasar-kemal-asks-germans-not-to.html.
^ a b c d e Bosquet, Alain (1999). Yaşar Kemal on his life and art. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 9780815605515.
^ Taylor & Francis Group (2004). "KEMAL, Yashar". in Elizabeth Sleeman. International Who's Who of Authors and Writers. Routledge. p. 290. ISBN 1857431790. http://books.google.com/books?id=phhhHT64kIMC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290&dq=thilda+serrero+1952&source=web&ots=e_pvFOMtxq&sig=Hg2BiOwm9MbwM_tPPobX4w3Jv7s&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result.
^ Uzun, Mehmed (2001-01-22). "Thilda Kemal: The Graceful Voice of an Eternal Ballad". Turkish Daily News. Archived from the original on 2008-07-11. http://www.tranchida.it/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=491.
^ a b c "Thilda Kemal, wife and translator of novelist Yasar Kemal, dies". Turkish Daily News. 2001-01-19. Archived from the original on 2008-11-14. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/2001/01/thilda-kemal-wife-and-translator-of.html.
^ Kayar, Ayda (2002-08-11). "Yaşar Kemal evlendi" (in Turkish). Hürriyet. http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2002/08/11/164909.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Birch, Nicholas (2008-11-28). "Yasar Kemal's disappearing world of stories". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/nov/28/yasar-kemal. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
^ Göktaş, Lütfullah (2007-06-30). "Yaşar Kemal’in Teneke’si İtalyanca opera" (in Turkish). NTV-MSNBC. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/news/412307.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kültür ve Sanat Büyük Ödülleri dağıtıldı" (in Turkish). Milliyet. Anka news agency. 2008-12-04. http://www.milliyet.com.tr/Siyaset/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&Kategori=siyaset&KategoriID=&ArticleID=1024766&Date=04.12.2008&b=Yasar%20Kemal%20torende%20yurumekte%20zorlandi. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
^ "Yaşar Kemal: Umutsuzluk umudu yaratır" (in Turkish). ntvmsnbc.com. Anadolu Ajansı. October 7, 2009. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25007751/. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
Source: Wikipedia
As an outspoken intellectual, he does not hesitate to speak on sensitive issues such as the plight of the ethnic Kurds in Southeastern Turkey.[5] His activism resulted in a twenty-month suspended jail sentence, on charges of advocating separatism.[6]
Contents [hide]
1 Life
1.1 Marriages
2 Oeuvre
3 Bibliography
4 Awards and Distinctions
5 References
[edit] Life
Turkish
literature
By category
Epic tradition
Orhon
Dede Korkut · Köroğlu
Folk tradition
Folk literature
Folklore
Ottoman era
Poetry · Prose
Republican era
Poetry · Prose
Kemal, who describes himself as a Turk of Kurdish descent[6], was born in Hemite (now Gökçedam), a hamlet in the province of Osmaniye in southern Turkey. His parents were from Van, who came into Çukurova during the First World War. Kemal had a difficult childhood because he lost his right eye due to a knife accident, when his father was slaughtering a sheep on Eid al-Adha, and had to witness as his father was stabbed to death by his adoptive son Yusuf while praying in a mosque when he was five years old.[1] This traumatic experience left Kemal with a speech impediment, which lasted until he was twelve years old. At nine he started school in a neighboring village and continued his formal education in Kadirli, Osmaniye Province.[1]
Kemal was a locally noted bard before he started school, but was unappreciated by his widowed mother until he composed an elegy on the death of one of her eight brothers, all bandits.[7] However, he forgot it and became interested in writing as a means to record his work when he questioned an itinerant peddler, who was doing his accounts. Ultimately, his village paid his way to university in Istanbul.[7]
He worked for a while for rich farmers, guarding their river water against other farmers' unauthorized irrigation. However, instead he taught the poor farmers how to steal the water undetected, by taking it at night.[7]
Later he worked as a letter-writer, then as a journalist, and finally as a novelist. He said that the Turkish police took his first two novels.[7]
[edit] Marriages
In 1952, Yaşar Kemal married Thilda Serrero,[8] a member of a prominent Sephardi Jewish family in Istanbul. Her grandfather, Jak Mandil Pasha, was the chief physician of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II.[9] She translated 17 of her husband’s works into the English language.[10] Thilda died on January 17, 2001 (aged 78) from pulmonary complications at a hospital in Istanbul, and was laid to rest at Zincirlikuyu Cemetery.[10] Thilda is survived by her hushand, her son Raşit and a grandchild.[10]
Yaşar Kemal remarried on August 1, 2002 with Ayşe Semiha Baban, a lecturer for public relations at Bilgi University in Istanbul. She was educated at the American University of Beirut, Bosphorus University and Harvard University.[11]
[edit] Oeuvre
“ I don't write about issues, I don't write for an audience, I don't even write for myself. I just write. ”
—Interview with The Guardian.[12]
He published his first book Ağıtlar ("Ballads") in 1943, which was a compilation of folkloric themes. This book brings to light many long forgotten rhymes and ballads and Kemal had started to collect these ballads at the age of 16.[1] His first stories Bebek ("The Baby"), Dükkancı ("The Shopkeeper"), Memet ile Memet ("Memet and Memet") were published in 1950. He had written his first story Pis Hikaye ("The Dirty Story") in 1944, while he was serving in the military, in Kayseri. Then he published his book of short stories Sarı Sıcak ("Yellow Heat") in 1952. The initial point of his works was the toil of the people of the Çukurova plains and he based the themes of his writings on the lives and sufferings of these people. Yaşar Kemal has used the legends and stories of Anatolia extensively as the basis of his works.[1]
He received international acclaim with the publication of Memed, My Hawk (Turkish: İnce Memed) in 1955. In İnce Memed, Yaşar Kemal criticizes the fabric of the society through a legendary hero, a protagonist, who flees to the mountains as a result of the oppression of the Aghas. One of the most famous living writers in Turkey, Kemal is noted for his command of the language and lyrical description of bucolic Turkish life. He has been awarded 19 literary prizes so far and nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.
His 1955 novel Teneke was adapted into a theatrical play, which was staged for almost one year in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the country where he lived for about two years in the late 1970s.[13] Italian composer Fabio Vacchi adapted the same novel with the original title into an opera of three acts, which premiered at the Teatro alla Scala in Milano, Italy in 2007.
Kemal lays claim to having recreated Turkish as a literary language, by bringing in the vernacular, following Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's sterilization of Turkish by removing Persian and Arabic elements.[7]
[edit] Bibliography
Stories
Sarı Sıcak, ("Yellow Heat") (1952)
Novels
İnce Memed ("Memed, My Hawk") (1955)
Teneke ("The Drumming-Out") (1955)
Orta Direk ("The Wind from the Plain") (1960)
Yer Demir Gök Bakır ("Iron Earth, Copper Sky") (1963)
Ölmez Otu ("The Undying Grass") (1968)
Ince Memed II ("They Burn the Thistles") (1969)
Akçasazın Ağaları/Demirciler Çarşısı Cinayeti ("The Agas of Akchasaz Trilogy"/"Murder in the Ironsmiths Market") (1974)
Akçasazın Ağaları/Yusufcuk Yusuf ("The Agas of Akchasaz Trilogy"/"Yusuf, Little Yusuf") (1975)
Yılanı Öldürseler ("To Crush the Serpent") (1976)
Al Gözüm Seyreyle Salih ("The Saga of a Seagull") (1976)
Allahın Askerleri ("God’s Soldiers") (1978)
Kuşlar da Gitti ("The Birds Have Also Gone: Long Stories") (1978)
Deniz Küstü ("The Sea-Crossed Fisherman") (1978)
Hüyükteki Nar Ağacı ("The Pomegranate on the Knoll") (1982)
Yağmurcuk Kuşu/Kimsecik I ("Kimsecik I - Little Nobody I") (1980)
Kale Kapısı/Kimsecik II ("Kimsecik II - Little Nobody II")(1985)
Kanın Sesi/Kimsecik III ("Kimsecik III - Little Nobody III") (1991)
Fırat Suyu Kan Akıyor Baksana ("Look, the Euphrates is Flowing with Blood") (1997)
Karıncanın Su İçtiği ("Ant Drinking Water") (2002)
Tanyeri Horozları ("The Cocks of Dawn") (2002)
Epic Novels
Üç Anadolu Efsanesi ("Three Anatolian Legends or Anatolian Tales") (1967)
Ağrıdağı Efsanesi ("The Legend of Mount Ararat") (1970)
Binboğalar Efsanesi ("The Legend of the Thousand Bulls") (1971)
Çakırcalı Efe* ("The Life Stories of the Famous Bandit Çakircali") (1972)
Reportages
Yanan Ormanlarda 50 Gün ("Fifty Days in the Burning Forests") (1955)
Çukurova Yana Yana ("While Çukurova Burns") (1955)
Peribacaları ("The Fairy Chimneys") (1957)
Bu Diyar Baştan Başa ("Collected reportages") (1971)
Bir Bulut Kaynıyor ("Collected reportages") (1974)
Experimental Works
Ağıtlar ("Ballads") (1943)
Taş Çatlasa ("At Most") (1961)
Baldaki Tuz ("The Salt in the Honey") (1959-74 newspaper articles)
Gökyüzü Mavi Kaldı ("The Sky remained Blue") (collection of folk literature in collaboration with S. Eyüboğlu)
Ağacın Çürüğü ("The Rotting Tree") (Artciles and Speeches) (1980)
Yayımlanmamış 10 Ağıt ("10 Unpublished Ballads") (1985)
Sarı Defterdekiler ("Contents of the Yellow Notebook") (Collected Folkloric works) (1997)
Ustadır Arı ("The Expert Bee") (1995)
Zulmün Artsın ("Increase Your Oppression") (1995)
Children's Books
Filler Sultanı ile Kırmızı Sakallı Topal Karınca ("The Sultan of the Elephants and the Red-Bearded Lame Ant") (1977)
[edit] Awards and Distinctions
"Seven Days in the World's Largest Farm" reportage series, Journalist's Association Prize, 1955
Varlik Prize for Ince Memed ("Memed, My Hawk"), 1956
Ilhan Iskender Award for the play adapted from his book with the same name, Teneke ("The Drumming-Out"), 1966
The International Nancy Theatre Festival - First Prize for Teneke ("The Drumming-Out"), 1966
Madarli Novel Award for Demirciler Çarşısı ("Murder in the Ironsmith's Market"), 1974
Choix du Syndicat des Critiques Littéraires pour le meilleur roman etranger (Eté/Automne 1977) pour Terre de Fer, Ciel de Cuivre ("Yer Demir, Gök Bakır").
Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger 1978 pour L'Herbe qui ne meurt pas (Ölmez Otu); Paris, Janvier 1979.
Prix mondial Cino Del Duca decerné pour contributions a l'humanisme moderne; Paris, Octobre 1982.
Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur de France; Paris, 1984.
The Sedat Simavi Foundation Award for Literature; Istanbul, Turkey, 1985.
Paris, Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres, 1988
Doctor Honoris Causa, Strasbourg University, France, 1991.
Doctor Honoris Causa, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey, 1992.
Lillian Hellman/Dashiell Hammett Award for Courage in Response to Repression, Human Rights Watch, USA, 1996.
Peace Prize of the German Book Trade, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1997.
Premio Internazionale Nonino for collected works, Italy, 1997
Bordeaux, Prix Ecureuit de Littérature Etrangère, 1998
Honorary Doctorate, Bilkent University, 2002
Z. Homer poetry Award, 2003
Savanos Prize (Thessalonika-Greece), 2003
Turkish Publisher's Association Lifetime Achievement Award, 2003
Presidential Cultural and Artistic Grand Prize, 2008[14]
Honorary Doctorate, Bogazici University, 2009
Honorary Doctorate, Çukurova University, 2009 [15]
[edit] References
^ a b c d e Yaşar Kemal - YKY
^ Ertan, Nazlan (1997-03-06). "French pay tribute to Yasar Kemal". Turkish Daily News. Archived from the original on 2008-11-15. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/1997/03/french-pay-tribute-to-yasar-kemal.html.
^ Perrier, Jean-Louis (1997-03-04). "Yachar Kemal, conteur et imprécateur" (in French). Le Monde. http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=251930. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
^ "Ölene kadar Nobel adayı olacağım" (in Turkish). Hurriyet. 2007-07-02. http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=5621617&tarih=2007-07-02. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
^ Norman, Roger (1997-06-05). "Yasar Kemal and the last of the nomads". Turkish Daily News (Hürriyet). http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-503844. Retrieved 2008-12-15. "...for Yasar Kemal has become perhaps the best known champion of human rights in Turkey, the godfather of freedom of conscience. He is no stranger to prison and currently has a suspended prison sentence hanging over him."
^ a b "Yasar Kemal asks Germans not to mistreat Turks". Turkish Daily News. Reuters. 1997-10-19. Archived from the original on 2008-11-14. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/1997/10/yasar-kemal-asks-germans-not-to.html.
^ a b c d e Bosquet, Alain (1999). Yaşar Kemal on his life and art. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 9780815605515.
^ Taylor & Francis Group (2004). "KEMAL, Yashar". in Elizabeth Sleeman. International Who's Who of Authors and Writers. Routledge. p. 290. ISBN 1857431790. http://books.google.com/books?id=phhhHT64kIMC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290&dq=thilda+serrero+1952&source=web&ots=e_pvFOMtxq&sig=Hg2BiOwm9MbwM_tPPobX4w3Jv7s&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result.
^ Uzun, Mehmed (2001-01-22). "Thilda Kemal: The Graceful Voice of an Eternal Ballad". Turkish Daily News. Archived from the original on 2008-07-11. http://www.tranchida.it/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=491.
^ a b c "Thilda Kemal, wife and translator of novelist Yasar Kemal, dies". Turkish Daily News. 2001-01-19. Archived from the original on 2008-11-14. http://tdnarchives.blogspot.com/2001/01/thilda-kemal-wife-and-translator-of.html.
^ Kayar, Ayda (2002-08-11). "Yaşar Kemal evlendi" (in Turkish). Hürriyet. http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2002/08/11/164909.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Birch, Nicholas (2008-11-28). "Yasar Kemal's disappearing world of stories". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/nov/28/yasar-kemal. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
^ Göktaş, Lütfullah (2007-06-30). "Yaşar Kemal’in Teneke’si İtalyanca opera" (in Turkish). NTV-MSNBC. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/news/412307.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kültür ve Sanat Büyük Ödülleri dağıtıldı" (in Turkish). Milliyet. Anka news agency. 2008-12-04. http://www.milliyet.com.tr/Siyaset/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&Kategori=siyaset&KategoriID=&ArticleID=1024766&Date=04.12.2008&b=Yasar%20Kemal%20torende%20yurumekte%20zorlandi. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
^ "Yaşar Kemal: Umutsuzluk umudu yaratır" (in Turkish). ntvmsnbc.com. Anadolu Ajansı. October 7, 2009. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25007751/. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
Source: Wikipedia
Sunday, January 10, 2010
Saturday, January 09, 2010
Noam Chomsky Bibliography
Syntactic Structures, London: Mouton, 1957. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, The Hague: Mouton, 1964. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1965. /Limited preview available in English/
Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought, New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
Language and Mind, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Sound Pattern of English (with Morris Halle), New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
American Power and the New Mandarins, New York: Pantheon Books, 1969.
At War With Asia, New York: Pantheon Books, 1970. /Limited preview available in English/
Two Essays on Cambodia, Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1970.
Chomsky: Selected Readings (edited by J. P. B. Allen and Paul Van Buren), London: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Problems of Knowledge and Freedom, New York: Pantheon Books, 1971.
Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar, The Hague: Mouton, 1972. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar, Paris: Mouton, 1972. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact and Propaganda (with Edward S. Herman), Andover: Warner Modular Publications, 1973. /Full text available in English/
For Reasons of State, New York: Pantheon Books, 1973. /Excerpt available in English/
Peace in the Middle East? Reflections on Justice and Nationhood, New York: Pantheon Books, 1974.
The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory, New York: Plenum Press, 1975.
Reflections on Language, New York: Pantheon Books, 1975.
Essays on Form and Interpretation, New York: North-Holland, 1977.
“Human Rights” and American Foreign Policy, Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1978.
Language and Responsibility: Based on Conversations with Mitson Ronat (translated from the French by John Viertel), New York: Pantheon Books, 1979. /Excerpt available in English/
Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew, New York: Garland, 1979.
After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Construction of Imperial Ideology (with Edward Herman), Boston: South End Press, 1979. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism (with Edward Herman), Boston: South End Press, 1979. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Language and Learning: The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky (edited by Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980. /Limited preview available in English/
Rules and Representations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.
Radical Priorities (edited by Carlos P. Otero), Montréal: Black Rose Books. 1981. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures, Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications, 1982. /Limited preview available in English/
Noam Chomsky on the Generative Enterprise: A Discussion with Riny Huybregts and Henk van Riemsdijk, Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications, 1982.
Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1982. /Limited preview available in English/
Towards a New Cold War: Essays on the Current Crisis and How We Got There, New York: Pantheon Books, 1982.
Language and the Study of Mind, Tokyo: Sansyusya Publishing, 1982.
The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel and the Palestinians, New York: South End Press, 1983. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Modular Approaches to the Study of the Mind, San Diego: California State University Press, 1984.
Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace, Boston: South End Press, 1985. /Limited preview available in English/
Pirates and Emperors: International Terrorism in the Real World, New York: Claremont Research & Publications, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Barriers, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use, New York: Praeger, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Language in a Psychological Setting, Tokyo: Sophia University, 1987.
The Chomsky Reader (edited by James Peck), New York: Pantheon Books, 1987. /Excerpt available in English/
On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures, Boston: South End Press, New York: Black Rose Books, 1987. /Limited preview available in English/
Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1988. /Limited preview available in English/
Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (with Edward Herman), New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.
The Culture of Terrorism, London: Pluto Press, Boston: South End Press, 1988. /Limited preview available in English/
Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, Boston: South End Press, 1989. /Full text available in English/
Terrorizing the Neighborhood: American Foreign Policy in the post-Cold War Era, Stirling, Scotland: AK Press, San Francisco: Pressure Drop Press, 1991.
Chronicles of Dissent: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1992. /Excerpt available in English/
What Uncle Sam Really Wants, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1992. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Deterring Democracy, London: Verso, 1991. /Full text available in English/
Language and Thought, Wakefield, RI: Moyer Bell, 1993.
Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and U.S. Political Culture, Boston: South End Press, 1993. /Full text available in English/
The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (with David Barsamian), Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1993. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Discurs Politic: Tres Converencies a Catalunya, Barcelona: Editorial Empuries, 1993.
Year 501: The Conquest Continues, Boston: South End Press, 1993. /Full text available in English/
Secrets, Lies and Democracy, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1994. /Full text available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
World Orders, Old and New, New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. /Limited preview available in English/
Keeping the Rabble in Line: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994. /Full text available in English/
Sprache als Organ, Sprache als Lebensform: Anhang, Interview mit Noam Chomsky Über Linguistik und Politik (with Günther Grewendorf), Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1995.
The Minimalist Program, Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1995. /Limited preview available in English/
Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1996. /Excerpt available in English/
Cómo se reparte la tarta: políticas USA al final del milenio, Barcelona: Icaria Editorial, 1996. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Social Order, Boston: South End Press, 1996. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Democracy in a Neoliberal Order: Doctrines and Reality, Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1997.
Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997, updated 2002. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Language and Politics (edited by Carlos P. Otero), Montréal: Black Rose Books, 1998. /Limited preview available in English/
Noam Chomsky habla de América Latina (interviews with Heinz Dieterich), La Habana: Casa Editora Abril, 1998. (Later published as Hablemos de terrorismo) /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Acts of Aggression: Policing "Rogue States" (with Edward Said and Ramsey Clark), New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
Profit over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Umbrella of U.S. Power: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Contradictions of U.S. Policy, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
The Architecture of Language (edited by Nirmalangshu Mukherji, Bibudhendra Narayan Patnaik, Rama Kant Agnihotri), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. /Excerpt available in English/
A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West, London: Verso, 2000.
Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs, Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2000. /Limited preview available in English/ /Limited preview available in Italian/ /Excerpt available in English/
New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. /Limited preview available in English/
9-11, New York: Seven Stories Press, 2001. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Propaganda and the Public Mind: Conversations with Noam Chomsky (with David Barsamian), Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2001. /Limited preview available in English/
Pirates and Emperors, Old and New: International Terrorism in the Real World (updated edition), London: Pluto, 2002. /Limited preview available in English/
Peering into the Abyss of the Future, New Delhi: Institute of Social Sciences, 2002.
On Nature and Language, with an essay on “The secular priesthood and the perils of democracy” (edited by Adriana Belletti and Luigi Rizzi), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. /Limited preview available in English/
Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky (edited by Peter R. Mitchell and John Schoeffel), New York: The New Press, 2002. /Excerpt available in English/
The Common Good: Interviews with David Barsamian, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 2002. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Bush y los años del miedo: Conversaciones con Jorge Halperín, Buenos Aires: Capital Intelectual, 2003.
Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship, New York: The New Press, York: Signature Books Services, 2003.
Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Power and Terror: Post-9/11 Talks and Interviews (edited by John Junkerman and Takei Masakazu), New York: Seven Stories Press, Tokyo: Little More, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Middle East Illusions (including Peace in the Middle East? Reflections on Justice and Nationhood), Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Chomsky on Democracy and Education (edited by Carlos P. Otero), New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Chomsky on Miseducation (edited by Donaldo Macedo), Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/
Getting Haiti Right This Time, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 2004. /Excerpt available in English/
Letters from Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda, Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
The Generative Enterprise Revisited: Discussions with Riny Huybregts, Henk van Riemsdijk, Naoki Fukui, and Mihoko Zushi, with a new foreword by Noam Chomsky, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/
El terror como política exterior de Estados Unidos, Buenos Aires: Libros del Zorzal, 2005. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Extracto del libro disponible en castellano/
Chomsky on Anarchism (edited by Barry Pateman), Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2005. /Limited preview available in English/
Rules and Representations, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
Government in the Future, New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005.
The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature (with Michel Foucault), New York: The New Press, distributed by W.W. Norton, 2006. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy, New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt, 2006.
Perilous Power: The Middle East and US Foreign Policy: Dialogues on Terror, Democracy, War, and Justice (with Gilbert Achcar, edited by Stephen Shalom), Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2006. /Limited preview available in Turkish/
What We Say Goes: Conversations on U.S. Power in a Changing World: Interviews with David Barsamian, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007.
Interventions, San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2007. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
The Essential Chomsky (edited by Anthony Arnove), New York: The New Press, 2008.
Of Minds and Language: A Dialogue with Noam Chomsky in the Basque Country (edited by Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, Juan Uriagereka, and Pello Salaburu), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. /Limited preview available in English/
Hopes and Prospects, Chicago: Haymarket Books, forthcoming March 2010.
New World of Indigenous Resistance: Voices from the Americas (edited by Lois Meyer and Benjamín Maldonado Alvarado), San Francisco: City Lights, forthcoming April 2010.
BOOK EXCERPTS
· Excerpted from Language and Mind, 1968.
Linguistic Contributions to the Study of Mind.
· Excerpted from For Reasons of State, 1973.
Notes on Anarchism.
Language and Freedom.
· Excerpted from Language and Responsibility, 1979.
Triumphs of Democracy.
Empiricism and Rationalism.
· Excerpted from After the Cataclysm, 1979.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979.
Introduction.
The Dominican Republic: U.S. Model for Third World Development.
The Nazi Parallel: The National Security State and the Churches.
· Excerpted from Radical Priorities, 1981.
The Carter Administration: Myth and Reality.
Watergate: Small Potatoes.
· Excerpted from The Fateful Triangle, 1983.
War is Peace.
"Stability".
· Excerpted from The Chomsky Reader, 1987.
Personal Influences.
What the World is Really Like: Who Knows It -- and Why.
· Excerpted from Chronicles of Dissent, 1992.
Israel, the Holocaust, and Anti-Semitism.
Pearl Harbor.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from Class Warfare, 1996.
Robert McNamara.
Education is Ignorance.
Looking for the Magic Answer?.
· Excerpted from Powers and Prospects, 1996.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The New Military Humanism, 1999.
Lessons from Kosovo.
· Excerpted from The Architecture of Language, 2000.
The "Chomskyan Era".
· Excerpted from Rogue States, 2000.
Rogues Gallery; Rogue States; Crisis in the Balkans.
East Timor Retrospective.
Cuba and U.S. Government.
Putting on the Pressure: Latin America.
"Recovering Rights" -- A Crooked Path.
The Legacy of War.
Socioeconomic Sovereignty.
Plan Colombia.
· Excerpted from 9-11, 2001.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The Common Good, 2002.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from Media Control, 2002.
The Journalist from Mars.
Miscellaneous selections.
Quotations.
· Excerpted from Understanding Power, 2002.
The Fate of an Honest Intellectual.
An Exchange on Manufacturing Consent.
Footnotes.
· Excerpted from Hegemony or Survival, 2003.
Priorities and Prospects.
Cuba in the Cross-Hairs: A Near Half-Century of Terror.
The Resort to Force.
Afterword.
Footnotes.
· Excerpted from Getting Haiti Right This Time, 2004.
The "Noble Phase" and "Saintly Glow" of US Foreign Policy.
· Extracto de El terror como política exterior
(Please note that http://www.chomsky.info/ has no specific recommendations as to where to obtain these titles, other than suggesting you try a well-stocked library or bookstore, or the various places to buy new or used books on the internet.)
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, The Hague: Mouton, 1964. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1965. /Limited preview available in English/
Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought, New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
Language and Mind, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Sound Pattern of English (with Morris Halle), New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
American Power and the New Mandarins, New York: Pantheon Books, 1969.
At War With Asia, New York: Pantheon Books, 1970. /Limited preview available in English/
Two Essays on Cambodia, Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1970.
Chomsky: Selected Readings (edited by J. P. B. Allen and Paul Van Buren), London: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Problems of Knowledge and Freedom, New York: Pantheon Books, 1971.
Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar, The Hague: Mouton, 1972. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar, Paris: Mouton, 1972. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact and Propaganda (with Edward S. Herman), Andover: Warner Modular Publications, 1973. /Full text available in English/
For Reasons of State, New York: Pantheon Books, 1973. /Excerpt available in English/
Peace in the Middle East? Reflections on Justice and Nationhood, New York: Pantheon Books, 1974.
The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory, New York: Plenum Press, 1975.
Reflections on Language, New York: Pantheon Books, 1975.
Essays on Form and Interpretation, New York: North-Holland, 1977.
“Human Rights” and American Foreign Policy, Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1978.
Language and Responsibility: Based on Conversations with Mitson Ronat (translated from the French by John Viertel), New York: Pantheon Books, 1979. /Excerpt available in English/
Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew, New York: Garland, 1979.
After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Construction of Imperial Ideology (with Edward Herman), Boston: South End Press, 1979. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism (with Edward Herman), Boston: South End Press, 1979. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Language and Learning: The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky (edited by Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980. /Limited preview available in English/
Rules and Representations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.
Radical Priorities (edited by Carlos P. Otero), Montréal: Black Rose Books. 1981. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures, Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications, 1982. /Limited preview available in English/
Noam Chomsky on the Generative Enterprise: A Discussion with Riny Huybregts and Henk van Riemsdijk, Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications, 1982.
Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1982. /Limited preview available in English/
Towards a New Cold War: Essays on the Current Crisis and How We Got There, New York: Pantheon Books, 1982.
Language and the Study of Mind, Tokyo: Sansyusya Publishing, 1982.
The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel and the Palestinians, New York: South End Press, 1983. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Modular Approaches to the Study of the Mind, San Diego: California State University Press, 1984.
Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace, Boston: South End Press, 1985. /Limited preview available in English/
Pirates and Emperors: International Terrorism in the Real World, New York: Claremont Research & Publications, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Barriers, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use, New York: Praeger, 1986. /Limited preview available in English/
Language in a Psychological Setting, Tokyo: Sophia University, 1987.
The Chomsky Reader (edited by James Peck), New York: Pantheon Books, 1987. /Excerpt available in English/
On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures, Boston: South End Press, New York: Black Rose Books, 1987. /Limited preview available in English/
Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1988. /Limited preview available in English/
Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (with Edward Herman), New York: Pantheon Books, 1988.
The Culture of Terrorism, London: Pluto Press, Boston: South End Press, 1988. /Limited preview available in English/
Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, Boston: South End Press, 1989. /Full text available in English/
Terrorizing the Neighborhood: American Foreign Policy in the post-Cold War Era, Stirling, Scotland: AK Press, San Francisco: Pressure Drop Press, 1991.
Chronicles of Dissent: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1992. /Excerpt available in English/
What Uncle Sam Really Wants, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1992. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Deterring Democracy, London: Verso, 1991. /Full text available in English/
Language and Thought, Wakefield, RI: Moyer Bell, 1993.
Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and U.S. Political Culture, Boston: South End Press, 1993. /Full text available in English/
The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (with David Barsamian), Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1993. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Discurs Politic: Tres Converencies a Catalunya, Barcelona: Editorial Empuries, 1993.
Year 501: The Conquest Continues, Boston: South End Press, 1993. /Full text available in English/
Secrets, Lies and Democracy, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 1994. /Full text available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
World Orders, Old and New, New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. /Limited preview available in English/
Keeping the Rabble in Line: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994. /Full text available in English/
Sprache als Organ, Sprache als Lebensform: Anhang, Interview mit Noam Chomsky Über Linguistik und Politik (with Günther Grewendorf), Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1995.
The Minimalist Program, Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1995. /Limited preview available in English/
Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1996. /Excerpt available in English/
Cómo se reparte la tarta: políticas USA al final del milenio, Barcelona: Icaria Editorial, 1996. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Social Order, Boston: South End Press, 1996. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Democracy in a Neoliberal Order: Doctrines and Reality, Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1997.
Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997, updated 2002. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Language and Politics (edited by Carlos P. Otero), Montréal: Black Rose Books, 1998. /Limited preview available in English/
Noam Chomsky habla de América Latina (interviews with Heinz Dieterich), La Habana: Casa Editora Abril, 1998. (Later published as Hablemos de terrorismo) /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Acts of Aggression: Policing "Rogue States" (with Edward Said and Ramsey Clark), New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
Profit over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
The Umbrella of U.S. Power: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Contradictions of U.S. Policy, New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. /Limited preview available in English/
The Architecture of Language (edited by Nirmalangshu Mukherji, Bibudhendra Narayan Patnaik, Rama Kant Agnihotri), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. /Excerpt available in English/
A New Generation Draws the Line: Kosovo, East Timor and the Standards of the West, London: Verso, 2000.
Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs, Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2000. /Limited preview available in English/ /Limited preview available in Italian/ /Excerpt available in English/
New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. /Limited preview available in English/
9-11, New York: Seven Stories Press, 2001. /Limited preview available in English/ /Excerpt available in English/
Propaganda and the Public Mind: Conversations with Noam Chomsky (with David Barsamian), Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2001. /Limited preview available in English/
Pirates and Emperors, Old and New: International Terrorism in the Real World (updated edition), London: Pluto, 2002. /Limited preview available in English/
Peering into the Abyss of the Future, New Delhi: Institute of Social Sciences, 2002.
On Nature and Language, with an essay on “The secular priesthood and the perils of democracy” (edited by Adriana Belletti and Luigi Rizzi), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. /Limited preview available in English/
Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky (edited by Peter R. Mitchell and John Schoeffel), New York: The New Press, 2002. /Excerpt available in English/
The Common Good: Interviews with David Barsamian, Berkeley, CA: Odonian Press, 2002. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Bush y los años del miedo: Conversaciones con Jorge Halperín, Buenos Aires: Capital Intelectual, 2003.
Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship, New York: The New Press, York: Signature Books Services, 2003.
Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Excerpt available in English/
Power and Terror: Post-9/11 Talks and Interviews (edited by John Junkerman and Takei Masakazu), New York: Seven Stories Press, Tokyo: Little More, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Middle East Illusions (including Peace in the Middle East? Reflections on Justice and Nationhood), Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Chomsky on Democracy and Education (edited by Carlos P. Otero), New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003. /Limited preview available in English/
Chomsky on Miseducation (edited by Donaldo Macedo), Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/
Getting Haiti Right This Time, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 2004. /Excerpt available in English/
Letters from Lexington: Reflections on Propaganda, Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
The Generative Enterprise Revisited: Discussions with Riny Huybregts, Henk van Riemsdijk, Naoki Fukui, and Mihoko Zushi, with a new foreword by Noam Chomsky, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004. /Limited preview available in English/
El terror como política exterior de Estados Unidos, Buenos Aires: Libros del Zorzal, 2005. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/ /Extracto del libro disponible en castellano/
Chomsky on Anarchism (edited by Barry Pateman), Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2005. /Limited preview available in English/
Rules and Representations, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
Government in the Future, New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005.
The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature (with Michel Foucault), New York: The New Press, distributed by W.W. Norton, 2006. /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy, New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt, 2006.
Perilous Power: The Middle East and US Foreign Policy: Dialogues on Terror, Democracy, War, and Justice (with Gilbert Achcar, edited by Stephen Shalom), Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2006. /Limited preview available in Turkish/
What We Say Goes: Conversations on U.S. Power in a Changing World: Interviews with David Barsamian, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007.
Interventions, San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2007. /Limited preview available in English/ /Vista previa limitada disponible en castellano/
The Essential Chomsky (edited by Anthony Arnove), New York: The New Press, 2008.
Of Minds and Language: A Dialogue with Noam Chomsky in the Basque Country (edited by Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, Juan Uriagereka, and Pello Salaburu), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. /Limited preview available in English/
Hopes and Prospects, Chicago: Haymarket Books, forthcoming March 2010.
New World of Indigenous Resistance: Voices from the Americas (edited by Lois Meyer and Benjamín Maldonado Alvarado), San Francisco: City Lights, forthcoming April 2010.
BOOK EXCERPTS
· Excerpted from Language and Mind, 1968.
Linguistic Contributions to the Study of Mind.
· Excerpted from For Reasons of State, 1973.
Notes on Anarchism.
Language and Freedom.
· Excerpted from Language and Responsibility, 1979.
Triumphs of Democracy.
Empiricism and Rationalism.
· Excerpted from After the Cataclysm, 1979.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979.
Introduction.
The Dominican Republic: U.S. Model for Third World Development.
The Nazi Parallel: The National Security State and the Churches.
· Excerpted from Radical Priorities, 1981.
The Carter Administration: Myth and Reality.
Watergate: Small Potatoes.
· Excerpted from The Fateful Triangle, 1983.
War is Peace.
"Stability".
· Excerpted from The Chomsky Reader, 1987.
Personal Influences.
What the World is Really Like: Who Knows It -- and Why.
· Excerpted from Chronicles of Dissent, 1992.
Israel, the Holocaust, and Anti-Semitism.
Pearl Harbor.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from Class Warfare, 1996.
Robert McNamara.
Education is Ignorance.
Looking for the Magic Answer?.
· Excerpted from Powers and Prospects, 1996.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The New Military Humanism, 1999.
Lessons from Kosovo.
· Excerpted from The Architecture of Language, 2000.
The "Chomskyan Era".
· Excerpted from Rogue States, 2000.
Rogues Gallery; Rogue States; Crisis in the Balkans.
East Timor Retrospective.
Cuba and U.S. Government.
Putting on the Pressure: Latin America.
"Recovering Rights" -- A Crooked Path.
The Legacy of War.
Socioeconomic Sovereignty.
Plan Colombia.
· Excerpted from 9-11, 2001.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from The Common Good, 2002.
Miscellaneous selections.
· Excerpted from Media Control, 2002.
The Journalist from Mars.
Miscellaneous selections.
Quotations.
· Excerpted from Understanding Power, 2002.
The Fate of an Honest Intellectual.
An Exchange on Manufacturing Consent.
Footnotes.
· Excerpted from Hegemony or Survival, 2003.
Priorities and Prospects.
Cuba in the Cross-Hairs: A Near Half-Century of Terror.
The Resort to Force.
Afterword.
Footnotes.
· Excerpted from Getting Haiti Right This Time, 2004.
The "Noble Phase" and "Saintly Glow" of US Foreign Policy.
· Extracto de El terror como política exterior
(Please note that http://www.chomsky.info/ has no specific recommendations as to where to obtain these titles, other than suggesting you try a well-stocked library or bookstore, or the various places to buy new or used books on the internet.)
Friday, January 08, 2010
Thursday, January 07, 2010
Blues
Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre created within the African-American communities in the Deep South of the United States at the end of the 19th century from spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[1] The blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz, rhythm and blues and rock and roll is characterized by the use of specific chord progressions — the twelve-bar blues chord progressions being the most frequently encountered — and the blue note that for expressive purposes are sung or played flattened or gradually bent in relation to the pitch of the major scale.
The blues genre is based on the blues form but possesses other characteristics such as specific lyrics, bass lines and instruments. Blues can be subdivided into several subgenres ranging from country to urban blues that were more or less popular during different periods of the 20th century. Best known are the Delta, Piedmont, Jump and Chicago blues styles. World War II marked the transition from acoustic to electric blues and the progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience. In the 1960s and 1970s, a hybrid form called blues rock evolved.
The term "the blues" refers to the "the blue devils", meaning melancholy and sadness; an early use of the term in this sense is found in George Colman's one-act farce Blue Devils (1798).[2] Though the use of the phrase in African American music may be older, it has been attested to since 1912, when Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" became the first copyrighted blues composition.[3][4] In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood.[5]
Contents
1 Form
2 Lyrics
3 History
3.1 Origins
3.2 Prewar blues
3.3 1950s
3.4 1960s and 1970s
3.5 1980s to the 2000s
4 Musical impact
5 In popular culture
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Form
During the first decades of the 20th century, blues music was not clearly defined in terms of a chord progression.[6] By the 1920s, probably due to the commercial success in the African-American community of singers such as Bessie Smith, twelve-bar blues became the standard.[7] Other chord progressions, such as 8-bar forms, are still considered blues; examples include "How Long Blues", "Trouble in Mind", and Big Bill Broonzy's "Key to the Highway". There are also 16-bar blues, as in Ray Charles's instrumental "Sweet 16 Bars" and in Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man". Idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as with the 9-bar progression in "Sitting on Top of the World". -
Chords played over a twelve-bar scheme: Chords for a blues in C:
I I or IV I I7
IV IV I I7
V V or IV I I or V
C C or F C C7
F F C C7
G G or F C C or G
The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a standard harmonic progression of twelve bars in a 4/4 time signature. The blues chords associated to a twelve-bar blues are typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme. They are labeled by Roman numbers referring to the degrees of the progression. For instance, for a blues in the key of C, C is the tonic chord (I) and F is the subdominant (IV). The last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, marking the transition to the beginning of the next progression. The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords.
Much of the time, some or all of these chords are played in the harmonic seventh (7th) form. The use of the harmonic seventh interval is characteristic of blues and is popularly called the "blues seven".[8] Blues seven chords add to the harmonic chord a note with a frequency in a 7:4 ratio to the fundamental note. At a 7:4 ratio, it is not close to any interval on the conventional Western diatonic scale.[9] For convenience or by necessity it is often approximated by a minor seventh interval or a dominant seventh chord.
A minor pentatonic scale; play (help·info)In melody, blues is distinguished by the use of the flattened third, fifth and seventh of the associated major scale.[10] These specialized notes are called the blue or bent notes. These scale tones may replace the natural scale tones, or they may be added to the scale, as in the case of the minor pentatonic blues scale, in which the flattened third replaces the natural third, the flattened seventh replaces the natural seventh and the flattened fifth is added between the natural fourth and natural fifth. While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of the flattened third, flattened seventh, and even flattened fifth in the melody, together with crushing—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time (i.e., diminished second)—and sliding, similar to using grace notes.[11] The blue notes allow for key moments of expression during the cadences, melodies, and embellishments of the blues.
Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythm and call-and-response, and they form a repetitive effect called a groove. Characteristic of the blues since its Afro-American origins, the shuffles played a central role in swing music.[12] The simplest shuffles, which were the clearest signature of the R&B wave that started in the mid 1940s,[13] were a three-note riff on the bass strings of the guitar. When this riff was played over the bass and the drums, the groove "feel" was created. Shuffle rhythm is often vocalized as "dow, da dow, da dow, da" or "dump, da dump, da dump, da":[14] it consists of uneven, or "swung," eighth notes. On a guitar this may be played as a simple steady bass or it may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from the fifth to the sixth of the chord and back. An example is provided by the following guitar tablature for the first four bars of a blues progression in E:[15][16]
E7 A7 E7 E7
E |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
B |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
G |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
D |----------------|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|----------------|----------------|
A |2—2-4-2-5-2-4—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|
E |0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|----------------|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|
[edit] Lyrics
Robert Johnson, an influential Delta blues musicianThe lyrics of early traditional blues verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times; it was only in the first decades of the 20th century that the most common current structure became standard: the so-called AAB pattern, consisting of a line sung over the four first bars, its repetition over the next four, and then a longer concluding line over the last bars.[17] Two of the first published blues songs, "Dallas Blues" (1912) and "St. Louis Blues" (1914), were 12-bar blues featuring the AAB structure. W. C. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times.[18] The lines are often sung following a pattern closer to a rhythmic talk than to a melody. Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative. The singer voiced his or her "personal woes in a world of harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of white folk, [and] hard times."[19]
The lyrics often relate troubles experienced within African American society. For instance Blind Lemon Jefferson's "Rising High Water Blues" (1927) tells about the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927:
"Backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time
I said, backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time
And I can't get no hearing from that Memphis girl of mine."
However, although the blues gained an association with misery and oppression, the lyrics could also be humorous and raunchy as well:[20]
"Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me."
From Big Joe Turner's "Rebecca", a compilation of traditional blues lyrics
Hokum blues celebrated both comedic lyrical content and a boisterous, farcical performance style.[21] Tampa Red's classic "Tight Like That" (1928) is a sly wordplay with the double meaning of being "tight" with someone coupled with a more salacious physical familiarity. Lyrical content of music became slightly simpler in post war-blues in which focus was often almost exclusively on singer's relationship woes or sexual worries. Many lyrical themes that frequently appeared in pre-war blues such as economic depression, farming, devils, gambling, magic, floods and dry periods were less common post war blues.[22]
Author Ed Morales has claimed that Yoruba mythology played a part in early blues, citing Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues" as a "thinly veiled reference to Eleggua, the orisha in charge of the crossroads".[23] However, the Christian influence was far more obvious.[24] Many seminal blues artists such as Charley Patton or Skip James had several religious songs or spirituals in their repertoire.[25] Reverend Gary Davis[26] and Blind Willie Johnson[27] are examples of artists often categorized as blues musicians for their music, although their lyrics clearly belong to the spirituals.
History
"The Memphis Blues"
The Memphis Blues, composed by W. C. Handy in 1912. Recorded by Victor Military Band. First known commercial recording of Handy's first commercially successful blues composition.
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Crazy Blues
The first commercial recording of vocal blues by an African-American singer: Mamie Smith's performance of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues" in 1920.
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Keep your lamp trimmed and burning
Traditional spiritual performed by Texas gospel singer Blind Willie Johnson (vocal and guitar) and Willie B. Harris (vocal) in 1927. This example shows the close relationship between gospel and blues music.
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Dupree Blues
Piedmont blues, performed in 1930 by Blind Willie Walker
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Cross Road Blues
Cross Road Blues, performed in 1937 by Robert Johnson, a Delta blues guitarist
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Moanin' At Midnight
Chicago blues of the early post-war era, Recorded by Howlin' Wolf in 1951.
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Mr. P.C.
Hard Bop recorded by John Coltrane in 1960. This is an example of jazz with blues structure.
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Steppin' Out
File:1 Steppin' Out.ogg
Steppin' Out, Chicago blues composed by James Bracken and performed in the rock blues style by John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers on the album Bluesbreakers with Eric Clapton, 1966.
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John Lomax, pioneering musicologist and folkloristThe first publication of blues sheet music was Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" in 1912; W. C. Handy's "Memphis Blues" followed in the same year. The first recording by an African American singer was Mamie Smith's 1920 rendition of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues". But the origins of the blues date back to some decades earlier, probably around 1890.[28] They are very poorly documented, due in part to discrimination within American society, including academic circles,[29] and to the low alphabetization of the rural African American community.[30] Chroniclers began to report about blues music in Southern Texas and Deep South at the dawn of the 20th century. In particular, Charles Peabody mentions the appearance of blues music at Clarksdale, Mississippi and Gate Thomas reports very similar songs in southern Texas around 1901–1902. These observations coincide more or less with the remembrance of Jelly Roll Morton, who declared having heard blues for the first time in New Orleans in 1902; Ma Rainey, who remembered her first blues experience the same year in Missouri; and W.C. Handy, who first heard the blues in Tutwiler, Mississippi in 1903. The first extensive research in the field was performed by Howard W. Odum, who published a large anthology of folk songs in the counties of Lafayette, Mississippi and Newton, Georgia between 1905 and 1908.[31] The first non-commercial recordings of blues music, termed "proto-blues" by Paul Oliver, were made by Odum at the very beginning of the 20th century for research purposes. They are now utterly lost.[32] Other recordings which are still available were made in 1924 by Lawrence Gellert. Later, several recordings were made by Robert W. Gordon, who became head of the Archive of American Folk Songs of the Library of Congress. Gordon's successor at the Library was John Lomax. In the 1930s, together with his son Alan, Lomax made a large number of non-commercial blues recordings which bear testimony to the huge variety of proto-blues styles, such as field hollers and ring shouts.[33] A record of blues music as it existed before the 1920s is also given by the recordings of artists such as Lead Belly[34] or Henry Thomas[35] who both performed archaic blues music. All these sources show the existence of many different structures distinct from the twelve-, eight-, or sixteen-bar.[36][37]
The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully known.[38] The first appearance of the blues is often dated after the Emancipation Act of 1863,[29] between 1870 and 1900, a period that coincides with Emancipation and, later, the development of juke joints as places where Blacks went to listen to music, dance, or gamble after a hard day's work.[39] This period corresponds to the transition from slavery to sharecropping, small-scale agricultural production, and the expansion of railroads in the southern United States. Several scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the enslaved people. According to Lawrence Levine, "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of Booker T. Washington's teachings, and the rise of the blues." Levine states that "psychologically, socially, and economically, African-Americans were being acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did."[40]
There are few characteristics common to all blues music, because the genre took its shape from the idiosyncrasies of individual performances.[41] However, there are some characteristics that were present long before the creation of the modern blues. Call-and-response shouts were an early form of blues-like music; they were a "functional expression ... style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure."[42] A form of this pre-blues was heard in slave ring shouts and field hollers, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content".[43]
Blues has evolved from the unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of slaves imported from West Africa (principally present-day Mali, Senegal, the Gambia and Ghana)[44][45] and rural blacks into a wide variety of styles and subgenres, with regional variations across the United States. Though blues, as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European harmonic structure and the African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of voice and guitar,[46][47] the blues form itself bears no resemblance to the melodic styles of the West African griots, and the influences are faint and tenuous.[48][49] In particular, no specific African musical form can be identified as the single direct ancestor of the blues.[50] However many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to the music of Africa. That blue notes pre-date their use in blues and have an African origin is attested by English composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's "A Negro Love Song", from his The African Suite for Piano composed in 1898, which contains blue third and seventh notes.[51] The Diddley bow (a homemade one-stringed instrument found in parts of the American South in the early twentieth century) and the banjo are African-derived instruments that may have helped in the transfer of African performance techniques into the early blues instrumental vocabulary.[52] The banjo seems to be directly imported from western African music. It is similar to the musical instrument that griots played (called halam or akonting by African peoples such as the Wolof, Fula and Madinka).[53] However, in the 1920s, when country blues began to be recorded, the use of the banjo in blues music was quite marginal and limited to individuals such as Papa Charlie Jackson and later Gus Cannon.[54]
Blues music also adopted elements from the "Ethiopian airs", minstrel shows and Negro spirituals, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment.[55] The style also was closely related to ragtime, which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic patterns of African music".[56]
The musical forms and styles that are now considered the "blues" as well as modern "country music" arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called "race music" and "hillbilly music" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country," except for the ethnicity of the performer, and even that was sometimes documented incorrectly by record companies.[57][58] Though musicologists can now attempt to define “the blues” narrowly in terms of certain chord structures and lyric strategies thought to have originated in West Africa, audiences originally heard the music in a far more general way: it was simply the music of the rural south, notably the Mississippi Delta. Black and white musicians shared the same repertoire and thought of themselves as “songsters” rather than “blues musicians.” The notion of blues as a separate genre arose during the black migration from the countryside to urban areas in the 1920s and the simultaneous development of the recording industry. “Blues” became a code word for a record designed to sell to black listeners.[59]
The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community, the spirituals. The origins of spirituals go back much further than the blues, usually dating back to the middle of the 18th century, when the slaves were Christianized and began to sing and play Christian hymns, in particular those of Isaac Watts, which were very popular.[60] Before the blues gained its formal definition in terms of chord progressions, it was defined as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. It was the low-down music played by the rural Blacks. Depending on the religious community a musician belonged to, it was more or less considered as a sin to play this low-down music: blues was the devil's music. Musicians were therefore segregated into two categories: gospel and blues singers, guitar preachers and songsters. However, at the time rural Black music began to get recorded in the 1920s, both categories of musicians used very similar techniques: call-and-response patterns, blue notes, and slide guitars. Gospel music was nevertheless using musical forms that were compatible with Christian hymns and therefore less marked by the blues form than its secular counterpart.[61]
Prewar blues
The American sheet music publishing industry produced a great deal of ragtime music. By 1912, the sheet music industry had published three popular blues-like compositions, precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blues elements: "Baby Seals' Blues" by "Baby" F. Seals (arranged by Artie Matthews), "Dallas Blues" by Hart Wand and "The Memphis Blues" by W. C. Handy.[62]
Sheet music from "St. Louis Blues" (1914)Handy was a formally trained musician, composer and arranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolific composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues"; however, his compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime;[23][63] Handy's signature work was the "St. Louis Blues".
In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music, reaching white audiences via Handy's arrangements and the classic female blues performers. The blues evolved from informal performances in bars to entertainment in theaters. Blues performances were organized by the Theater Owners Bookers Association in nightclubs such as the Cotton Club and juke joints such as the bars along Beale Street in Memphis. Several record companies, such as the American Record Corporation, Okeh Records, and Paramount Records, began to record African American music.
As the recording industry grew, country blues performers like Bo Carter, Blind Lemon Jefferson, Lonnie Johnson, Tampa Red and Blind Blake became more popular in the African American community. Kentucky-born Sylvester Weaver was in 1923 the first to record the slide guitar style, in which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade or the sawed-off neck of a bottle.[64] The slide guitar became an important part of the Delta blues.[65] The first blues recordings from the 1920s are categorized as a traditional, rural country blues and a more polished 'city' or urban blues.
Country blues performers often improvised, either without accompaniment or with only a banjo or guitar. Regional styles of country blues varied widely in the early 20th century. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy sparse style with passionate vocals accompanied by slide guitar. The little-recorded Robert Johnson[66] combined elements of urban and rural blues. In addition to Robert Johnson, influential performers of this style included his predecessors Charley Patton and Son House. Singers such as Blind Willie McTell and Blind Boy Fuller performed in the southeastern "delicate and lyrical" Piedmont blues tradition, which used an elaborate ragtime-based fingerpicking guitar technique. Georgia also had an early slide tradition[67] with George Carter, Curley Weaver, Tampa Red, "Barbecue Bob" Hicks and James "Kokomo" Arnold as representatives of this style.[68]
The lively Memphis blues style, which developed in the 1920s and 1930s near Memphis, Tennessee, was influenced by jug bands such as the Memphis Jug Band or the Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers. Performers such as Frank Stokes, Blind Old Tom Anderson, Sleepy John Estes, Robert Wilkins, Big Boy Brazier, Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie used a variety of unusual instruments such as washboard, fiddle, kazoo or mandolin. Memphis Minnie was famous for her virtuoso guitar style. Pianist Memphis Slim began his career in Memphis, but his distinct style was smoother and had some swing elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late 1930s or early 1940s and became part of the urban blues movement, which blended country music and electric blues.[69][70][71]
Bessie Smith, an early blues singer, was known for her powerful voice.City or urban blues styles were more codified and elaborate as a performer was no longer within their local, immediate community and had to adapt to a larger, more varied audience's aesthetic.[72] Classic female urban and vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s, among them Mamie Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie Smith, more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the first African-American to record a blues in 1920; her second record, "Crazy Blues", sold 75,000 copies in its first month.[73] Ma Rainey, the "Mother of Blues", and Bessie Smith each "[sang] around center tones, perhaps in order to project her voice more easily to the back of a room." Smith would "...sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was unsurpassed."[74] Urban male performers included popular black musicians of the era, such Tampa Red, Big Bill Broonzy and Leroy Carr. Before WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as "the Guitar Wizard". Carr accompanied himself on the piano with Scrapper Blackwell on guitar, a format that continued well into the 50s with people such as Charles Brown, and even Nat "King" Cole.[65]
A typical boogie-woogie basslineBoogie-woogie was another important style of 1930s and early 1940s urban blues.[75] While the style is often associated with solo piano, boogie-woogie was also used to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos. Boogie-Woogie style was characterized by a regular bass figure, an ostinato or riff and shifts of level in the left hand, elaborating each chord and trills and decorations in the right hand. Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based Jimmy Yancey and the Boogie-Woogie Trio (Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson and Meade Lux Lewis).[76] Chicago boogie-woogie performers included Clarence "Pine Top" Smith and Earl Hines, who "linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand."[72] The smooth Louisiana style of Professor Longhair and, more recently, Dr. John blends classic rhythm and blues with blues styles.
Another development in this period was big band blues.[77] The "territory bands" operating out of Kansas City, the Benny Moten orchestra, Jay McShann, and the Count Basie Orchestra were also concentrating on the blues, with 12-bar blues instrumentals such as Basie's "One O'Clock Jump" and "Jumpin' at the Woodside" and boisterous "blues shouting" by Jimmy Rushing on songs like "Going to Chicago" and "Sent for You Yesterday". A well-known big band blues tune is Glenn Miller's "In the Mood". In the 1940s, the jump blues style developed. Jump blues grew up from the boogie woogie wave and was stronly influenced by big band music. It uses saxophone or other brass instruments and the guitar in the rhythm section to create a jazzy, up-tempo sound with declamatory vocals. Jump blues tunes by Louis Jordan and Big Joe Turner, based in Kansas City, Missouri, influenced the development of later styles such as rock and roll and rhythm and blues.[78] Dallas-born T-Bone Walker, which is often associated to the California blues style,[79] performed a successful transition from the early urban blues à la Lonnie Johnson and Leroy Carr to the jump blues style and dominated the blues-jazz scene at Los Angeles during the 1940s.[80]
1950s
The transition from country to urban blues, that began in the 1920s, had always been driven by the successive waves of economic crisis and booms and the associated move of the rural Blacks to urban areas, the Great Migration. The long boom in the aftermath of World War II induced a massive migration of the African American population, the Second Great Migration, which was accompanied by a significant increase of the real income of the urban Blacks. The new migrants constituted a new market for the music industry. The name race record disappeared and was succeeded by Rhythm and Blues. This rapidly evolving market was mirrored by the Billboard Rhythm and Blues Chart. This marketing strategy reinforced trends within urban blues music such as the progressive electrification of the instruments, their amplification and the generalization of the blues beat, the blues shuffle, that became ubiquitous in R&B. This commercial stream had important consequences for blues music which, together with Jazz and Gospel music, became a component of the R&B wave.[81]
Muddy Waters, described as "the guiding light of the modern blues school"[82]After World War II and in the 1950s, new styles of electric blues music became popular in cities such as Chicago,[83] Memphis,[84] Detroit[85][86] and St. Louis.[87] Electric blues used amplified electric guitars, double bass which was progressively replaced by bass guitar, drums, and harmonica played through a microphone and a PA system or a guitar amplifier. Chicago became a center for electric blues from 1948 on, when Muddy Waters recorded his first success: "I Can't Be Satisfied".[88] Chicago blues is influenced to a large extent by the Mississippi blues style, because many performers had migrated from the Mississippi region. Howlin' Wolf,[89] Muddy Waters,[90] Willie Dixon,[91] and Jimmy Reed[92] were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicago during the Great Migration. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar, harmonica, and a rhythm section of bass and drums. J. T. Brown who played in Elmore James's bands,[93] or J. B. Lenoir's[94] also used saxophones, but these were used more as "backing" or rhythmic support than as solo instruments.
Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller) are well known harmonica (called "harp" by blues musicians) players of the early Chicago blues scene. Other harp players such as Big Walter Horton were also influential. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were known for their deep, "gravelly" voices.
Bassist and composer Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote many standard blues songs of the period, such as "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You" (both penned for Muddy Waters) and, "Wang Dang Doodle" and "Back Door Man" for Howlin' Wolf. Most artists of the Chicago blues style recorded for the Chicago-based Chess Records and Checker Records labels. Smaller blues labels of this era included Vee-Jay Records and J.O.B. Records. During the early 1950s, the Chicagoean labels were concurenced by Sam Phillips' Sun Records company in Memphis which recorded B. B. King and Howlin' Wolf before he moved to Chicago in 1960.[95] After Phillips discovered Elvis Presley in 1954, the Sun label turned to the rapidly expanding white audience and started recording mostly rock 'n' roll.[96]
In the 1950s, blues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular music. While popular musicians like Bo Diddley[85] and Chuck Berry,[97] both recording for Chess, were influenced by the Chicago blues, their enthusiastic playing styles departed from the melancholy aspects of blues. Chicago blues also influenced Louisiana's zydeco music,[98] with Clifton Chenier[99] using blues accents. Zydeco musicians used electric solo guitar and cajun arrangements of blues standards.
Otis Rush, a pioneer of the 'West Side Sound'In the late 1950s, a new blues style emerged on Chicago's West Side pioneered by Magic Sam, Buddy Guy and Otis Rush on Cobra Records.[100] The 'West Side Sound' had strong rhythmic support from a rhythm guitar, bass guitar and drums and as pefected by Guy, Freddie King, Magic Slim and Luther Allison was dominated by amplified electric lead guitar.[101][102]
John Lee Hooker created his own blues style and renewed it several times during his long career.Other blues artists, such as John Lee Hooker had influences not directly related to the Chicago style. John Lee Hooker's blues is more "personal", based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his "groovy" style is sometimes called "guitar boogie". His first hit, "Boogie Chillen", reached #1 on the R&B charts in 1949.[103]
By the late 1950s, the swamp blues genre developed near Baton Rouge, with performers such as Lightnin' Slim,[104] Slim Harpo,[105] Sam Myers and Jerry McCain. Strongly influenced by Jimmy Reed, Swamp blues has a slower pace and a simpler use of the harmonica than the Chicago blues style performers such as Little Walter or Muddy Waters. Songs from this genre include "Scratch my Back", "She's Tough" and "I'm a King Bee".
1960s and 1970s
By the beginning of the 1960s, genres influenced by African American music such as rock and roll and soul were part of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought African-American music to new audiences, both within the US and abroad. However, the blues wave which brought artists such as Muddy Waters to the foreground had stopped. Bluesmen such as Big Bill Broonzy and Willie Dixon started looking for new markets in Europe. Dick Waterman and the blues festivals he organized in Europe played a major role in propagating blues music abroad. In the UK, bands emulated US blues legends, and UK blues-rock-based bands had an influential role throughout the 1960s.[106]
Blues legend B.B. King with his guitar, "Lucille".Blues performers such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such as New York–born Taj Mahal. John Lee Hooker blended his blues style with rock elements and playing with younger white musicians, creating a musical style that can be heard on the 1971 album Endless Boogie. B. B. King's virtuoso guitar technique earned him the eponymous title "king of the blues". In contrast to the Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support from a saxophone, trumpet, and trombone, instead of using slide guitar or harp. Tennessee-born Bobby "Blue" Bland, like B. B. King, also straddled the blues and R&B genres. During this period, Freddie King and Albert King often played with rock and soul musicians (Eric Clapton, Booker T & the MGs)and had a major influence on those styles of music.
The music of the Civil Rights[107] and Free Speech movements in the US prompted a resurgence of interest in American roots music and early African American music. As well as Jimmi Bass Music festivals such as the Newport Folk Festival[108] brought traditional blues to a new audience, which helped to revive interest in prewar acoustic blues and performers such as Son House, Mississippi John Hurt, Skip James, and Reverend Gary Davis.[107] Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished by the Yazoo Records. J. B. Lenoir from the Chicago blues movement in the 1950s recorded several LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. His songs, originally distributed in Europe only,[109] commented on political issues such as racism or Vietnam War issues, which was unusual for this period. His Alabama Blues recording had a song that stated:
I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x)
You know they killed my sister and my brother,
and the whole world let them peoples go down there free
White audiences' interest in the blues during the 1960s increased due to the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the British blues movement. The style of British blues developed in the UK, when bands such as The Animals, Fleetwood Mac, John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers, The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and Cream and Irish musician Rory Gallagher performed classic blues songs from the Delta or Chicago blues traditions.[110] Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs.
The British and blues musicians of the early 1960s inspired a number of American blues rock fusion performers, including Canned Heat, the early Jefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, The J. Geils Band, Ry Cooder, James Montgomery Blues Band and The Allman Brothers Band. One blues rock performer, Jimi Hendrix, was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played psychedelic rock. Hendrix was a skilled guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of distortion and feedback in his music.[111] Through these artists and others, blues music influenced the development of rock music.[112]
Since the early 1970s, The Texas rock-blues style emerged which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. In contrast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Major artists of the Texas style are Johnny Winter, Stevie Ray Vaughan, The Fabulous Thunderbirds, and ZZ Top. These artists all began their musical journey in the 1970s, but they did not achieve major international success until the next decade.[113]
1980s to the 2000s
Since the 1980s, there has been a resurgence of interest in the blues among a certain part of the African-American population, particularly around Jackson, Mississippi and other deep South regions. Often termed "soul blues" or "Southern soul", the music at the heart of this movement was given new life by the unexpected success of two particular recordings on the Jackson-based Malaco label:[114] Z. Z. Hill's Down Home Blues (1982) and Little Milton's The Blues is Alright (1984). Contemporary African-American performers who work this vein of the blues include Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle, Sir Charles Jones, Bettye LaVette, Marvin Sease and Peggy Scott-Adams.
Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray VaughanDuring the 1980s, blues also continued in both traditional and new forms. In 1986, the album Strong Persuader revealed Robert Cray as a major blues artist.[115] The first Stevie Ray Vaughan recording, Texas Flood, was released in 1983, and the Texas-based guitarist exploded onto the international stage. 1989 saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's popularity with the album The Healer. Eric Clapton, known for his performances with the Blues Breakers and Cream, made a comeback in the 1990s with his album Unplugged, in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. However, the technological progresses which appeared in the 1990s in the domain of digital multitrack recording, and the evolution of the marketing strategies, which now include the production of video clips, have led to an increase of the costs of production and also to some loss of the spontaneity and improvisation which always have been an important component of blues music.[116]
In the 1980s and 1990s, blues publications such as Living Blues and Blues Revue began to be distributed, major cities began forming blues societies, outdoor blues festivals became more common, and[117] more nightclubs and venues for blues emerged.[118]
In the 1990s, blues performers explored a range of musical genres, as can be seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards, previously named W. C. Handy Awards[119] or of the Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary and Traditional Blues Album. Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several blues labels such as: Alligator Records, Black & Tan Records, Ruf Records, Chess Records (MCA), Delmark Records, NorthernBlues Music, and Vanguard Records (Artemis Records). Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of blues rarities such as Arhoolie Records, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (heir of Folkways Records) and Yazoo Records (Shanachie Records).[120]
Young blues artists today are exploring all aspects of the blues, from classic delta to more rock-oriented blues, artists born after 1970 such as John Mayer, Sean Costello, Shannon Curfman, Anthony Gomes, Shemekia Copeland, Jonny Lang, Corey Harris, Susan Tedeschi, Joe Bonamassa, Michelle Malone,The White Stripes, North Mississippi Allstars, Gracie B, Everlast, The Black Keys, Bob Log III, Jose P and Hillstomp developing their own styles.[121] Memphis, Texas-based William Daniel McFalls, also known as "Blues Boy Willie" is a performer of traditional blues.
Musical impact
Blues musical styles, forms (12-bar blues), melodies, and the blues scale have influenced many other genres of music, such as rock and roll, jazz, and popular music.[122] Prominent jazz, folk or rock performers, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan and the White Stripes have performed significant blues recordings. The blues scale is often used in popular songs like Harold Arlen's "Blues in the Night", blues ballads like "Since I Fell for You" and "Please Send Me Someone to Love", and even in orchestral works such as George Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" and "Concerto in F". Gershwin's second "Prelude" for solo piano is an interesting example of a classical blues, maintaining the form with academic strictness. The blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs many modal frames, especially the ladder of thirds used in rock music (e.g., in "A Hard Day's Night"). Blues forms are used in the theme to the televised Batman, teen idol Fabian's hit, "Turn Me Loose", country music star Jimmie Rodgers' music, and guitarist/vocalist Tracy Chapman's hit "Give Me One Reason".
R&B music can be traced back to spirituals and blues. Musically, spirituals were a descendant of New England choral traditions, and in particular of Isaac Watts's hymns, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the African-American community are much better documented than the "low-down" blues. Spiritual singing developed because African-American communities could gather for mass or worship gatherings, which were called camp meetings.
Early country bluesmen such as Skip James, Charley Patton, Georgia Tom Dorsey played country and urban blues and had influences from spiritual singing. Dorsey helped to popularize Gospel music.[123] Gospel music developed in the 1930s, with the Golden Gate Quartet. In the 1950s, soul music by Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and James Brown used gospel and blues music elements. In the 1960s and 1970s, gospel and blues were these merged in soul blues music. Funk music of the 1970s was influenced by soul; funk can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and contemporary R&B.
Duke Ellington straddled the big band and bebop genres. Ellington extensively used the blues form.[124]Before World War II, the boundaries between blues and jazz were less clear. Usually jazz had harmonic structures stemming from brass bands, whereas blues had blues forms such as the 12-bar blues. However, the jump blues of the 1940s mixed both styles. After WWII, blues had a substantial influence on jazz. Bebop classics, such as Charlie Parker's "Now's the Time", used the blues form with the pentatonic scale and blue notes. Bebop marked a major shift in the role of jazz, from a popular style of music for dancing, to a "high-art," less-accessible, cerebral "musician's music". The audience for both blues and jazz split, and the border between blues and jazz became more defined. Artists straddling the boundary between jazz and blues are categorized into the jazz blues sub-genre.[124][125]
The blues' twelve-bar structure and the blues scale was a major influence on rock and roll music. Rock and roll has been called "blues with a backbeat"; Carl Perkins called rockabilly "blues with a country beat". Rockabillies were also said to be twelve-bar blues played with a bluegrass beat. "Hound Dog", with its unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant), is a blues song transformed into a rock and roll song. Jerry Lee Lewis's style of rock and roll was heavily influenced by the blues and its derivative boogie woogie. His style of music was not exactly rockabilly but it has been often called real rock and roll (this is a label he shares with several African American rock and roll performers).[126][127]
Early country music was infused with the blues.[128] Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Bob Wills, Bill Monroe and Hank Williams have all described themselves as blues singers and their music has a blues feel that is different to the country pop of Eddy Arnold. A lot of the 1970s-era "outlaw" country music by Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings also borrowed from the blues. When Jerry Lee Lewis returned to country after the decline of 1950s style rock and roll, he sang his country with a blues feel and often included blues standards on his albums. Many early rock and roll songs are based on blues: "That's All Right Mama", "Johnny B. Goode", "Blue Suede Shoes", "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On", "Shake, Rattle, and Roll", and "Long Tall Sally". The early African American rock musicians retained the sexual themes and innuendos of blues music: "Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do" ("Tutti Frutti", Little Richard) or "See the girl with the red dress on, She can do the Birdland all night long" ("What'd I Say", Ray Charles
In popular culture
The music of Taj Mahal for the 1972 movie Sounder marked a revival of interest in acoustic blues.Like jazz, rock and roll, heavy metal music, hip hop music, reggae, country music, and pop music, blues has been accused of being the "devil's music" and of inciting violence and other poor behavior.[129] In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s.[63] In the early twentieth century, W.C. Handy was the first to popularize blues-influenced music among non-black Americans.
During the blues revival of the 1960s and '70s, acoustic blues artist Taj Mahal and legendary Texas bluesman Lightnin' Hopkins wrote and performed music that figured prominently in the popularly and critically acclaimed film Sounder (1972). The film earned Mahal a Grammy nomination for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture and a BAFTA nomination.[130] Almost 30 years later, Mahal wrote blues for, and performed a banjo composition, claw-hammer style, in the 2001 movie release "Songcatcher," which focused on the story of the preservation of the roots music of Appalachia.
Perhaps the most visible example of the blues style of music in the late 20th century came in 1980, when Dan Aykroyd and John Landis released the film The Blues Brothers. The film drew many of the biggest living influenciers of the Rhythm and blues genre together, such as Ray Charles, James Brown, Cab Calloway, Aretha Franklin, and John Lee Hooker. The band formed also began a successful tour under the Blues Brothers marquee. 1998 brought a sequel, Blues Brothers 2000 that, while not holding as great a critical and financial success, featured a much larger number of blues artists, such as B.B. King, Bo Diddley, Erykah Badu, Eric Clapton, Steve Winwood, Charlie Musselwhite, Blues Traveller, Jimmy Vaughn, Jeff Baxter.
In 2003, Martin Scorsese made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience. He asked several famous directors such as Clint Eastwood and Wim Wenders to participate in a series of documentary films for PBS called The Blues.[131] He also participated in the rendition of compilations of major blues artists in a series of high-quality CDs. Blues guitarist and vocalist Keb' Mo' performed his blues rendition of "America, the Beautiful" in 2006 to close out the final season of the television series The West Wing.
Source: Wikipedia
The blues genre is based on the blues form but possesses other characteristics such as specific lyrics, bass lines and instruments. Blues can be subdivided into several subgenres ranging from country to urban blues that were more or less popular during different periods of the 20th century. Best known are the Delta, Piedmont, Jump and Chicago blues styles. World War II marked the transition from acoustic to electric blues and the progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience. In the 1960s and 1970s, a hybrid form called blues rock evolved.
The term "the blues" refers to the "the blue devils", meaning melancholy and sadness; an early use of the term in this sense is found in George Colman's one-act farce Blue Devils (1798).[2] Though the use of the phrase in African American music may be older, it has been attested to since 1912, when Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" became the first copyrighted blues composition.[3][4] In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood.[5]
Contents
1 Form
2 Lyrics
3 History
3.1 Origins
3.2 Prewar blues
3.3 1950s
3.4 1960s and 1970s
3.5 1980s to the 2000s
4 Musical impact
5 In popular culture
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Form
During the first decades of the 20th century, blues music was not clearly defined in terms of a chord progression.[6] By the 1920s, probably due to the commercial success in the African-American community of singers such as Bessie Smith, twelve-bar blues became the standard.[7] Other chord progressions, such as 8-bar forms, are still considered blues; examples include "How Long Blues", "Trouble in Mind", and Big Bill Broonzy's "Key to the Highway". There are also 16-bar blues, as in Ray Charles's instrumental "Sweet 16 Bars" and in Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man". Idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as with the 9-bar progression in "Sitting on Top of the World". -
Chords played over a twelve-bar scheme: Chords for a blues in C:
I I or IV I I7
IV IV I I7
V V or IV I I or V
C C or F C C7
F F C C7
G G or F C C or G
The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a standard harmonic progression of twelve bars in a 4/4 time signature. The blues chords associated to a twelve-bar blues are typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme. They are labeled by Roman numbers referring to the degrees of the progression. For instance, for a blues in the key of C, C is the tonic chord (I) and F is the subdominant (IV). The last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, marking the transition to the beginning of the next progression. The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords.
Much of the time, some or all of these chords are played in the harmonic seventh (7th) form. The use of the harmonic seventh interval is characteristic of blues and is popularly called the "blues seven".[8] Blues seven chords add to the harmonic chord a note with a frequency in a 7:4 ratio to the fundamental note. At a 7:4 ratio, it is not close to any interval on the conventional Western diatonic scale.[9] For convenience or by necessity it is often approximated by a minor seventh interval or a dominant seventh chord.
A minor pentatonic scale; play (help·info)In melody, blues is distinguished by the use of the flattened third, fifth and seventh of the associated major scale.[10] These specialized notes are called the blue or bent notes. These scale tones may replace the natural scale tones, or they may be added to the scale, as in the case of the minor pentatonic blues scale, in which the flattened third replaces the natural third, the flattened seventh replaces the natural seventh and the flattened fifth is added between the natural fourth and natural fifth. While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of the flattened third, flattened seventh, and even flattened fifth in the melody, together with crushing—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time (i.e., diminished second)—and sliding, similar to using grace notes.[11] The blue notes allow for key moments of expression during the cadences, melodies, and embellishments of the blues.
Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythm and call-and-response, and they form a repetitive effect called a groove. Characteristic of the blues since its Afro-American origins, the shuffles played a central role in swing music.[12] The simplest shuffles, which were the clearest signature of the R&B wave that started in the mid 1940s,[13] were a three-note riff on the bass strings of the guitar. When this riff was played over the bass and the drums, the groove "feel" was created. Shuffle rhythm is often vocalized as "dow, da dow, da dow, da" or "dump, da dump, da dump, da":[14] it consists of uneven, or "swung," eighth notes. On a guitar this may be played as a simple steady bass or it may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from the fifth to the sixth of the chord and back. An example is provided by the following guitar tablature for the first four bars of a blues progression in E:[15][16]
E7 A7 E7 E7
E |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
B |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
G |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------|
D |----------------|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|----------------|----------------|
A |2—2-4-2-5-2-4—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|
E |0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|----------------|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|
[edit] Lyrics
Robert Johnson, an influential Delta blues musicianThe lyrics of early traditional blues verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times; it was only in the first decades of the 20th century that the most common current structure became standard: the so-called AAB pattern, consisting of a line sung over the four first bars, its repetition over the next four, and then a longer concluding line over the last bars.[17] Two of the first published blues songs, "Dallas Blues" (1912) and "St. Louis Blues" (1914), were 12-bar blues featuring the AAB structure. W. C. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times.[18] The lines are often sung following a pattern closer to a rhythmic talk than to a melody. Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative. The singer voiced his or her "personal woes in a world of harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of white folk, [and] hard times."[19]
The lyrics often relate troubles experienced within African American society. For instance Blind Lemon Jefferson's "Rising High Water Blues" (1927) tells about the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927:
"Backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time
I said, backwater rising, Southern peoples can't make no time
And I can't get no hearing from that Memphis girl of mine."
However, although the blues gained an association with misery and oppression, the lyrics could also be humorous and raunchy as well:[20]
"Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me."
From Big Joe Turner's "Rebecca", a compilation of traditional blues lyrics
Hokum blues celebrated both comedic lyrical content and a boisterous, farcical performance style.[21] Tampa Red's classic "Tight Like That" (1928) is a sly wordplay with the double meaning of being "tight" with someone coupled with a more salacious physical familiarity. Lyrical content of music became slightly simpler in post war-blues in which focus was often almost exclusively on singer's relationship woes or sexual worries. Many lyrical themes that frequently appeared in pre-war blues such as economic depression, farming, devils, gambling, magic, floods and dry periods were less common post war blues.[22]
Author Ed Morales has claimed that Yoruba mythology played a part in early blues, citing Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues" as a "thinly veiled reference to Eleggua, the orisha in charge of the crossroads".[23] However, the Christian influence was far more obvious.[24] Many seminal blues artists such as Charley Patton or Skip James had several religious songs or spirituals in their repertoire.[25] Reverend Gary Davis[26] and Blind Willie Johnson[27] are examples of artists often categorized as blues musicians for their music, although their lyrics clearly belong to the spirituals.
History
"The Memphis Blues"
The Memphis Blues, composed by W. C. Handy in 1912. Recorded by Victor Military Band. First known commercial recording of Handy's first commercially successful blues composition.
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Crazy Blues
The first commercial recording of vocal blues by an African-American singer: Mamie Smith's performance of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues" in 1920.
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Keep your lamp trimmed and burning
Traditional spiritual performed by Texas gospel singer Blind Willie Johnson (vocal and guitar) and Willie B. Harris (vocal) in 1927. This example shows the close relationship between gospel and blues music.
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Dupree Blues
Piedmont blues, performed in 1930 by Blind Willie Walker
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Cross Road Blues
Cross Road Blues, performed in 1937 by Robert Johnson, a Delta blues guitarist
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Moanin' At Midnight
Chicago blues of the early post-war era, Recorded by Howlin' Wolf in 1951.
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Mr. P.C.
Hard Bop recorded by John Coltrane in 1960. This is an example of jazz with blues structure.
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Steppin' Out
File:1 Steppin' Out.ogg
Steppin' Out, Chicago blues composed by James Bracken and performed in the rock blues style by John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers on the album Bluesbreakers with Eric Clapton, 1966.
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John Lomax, pioneering musicologist and folkloristThe first publication of blues sheet music was Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" in 1912; W. C. Handy's "Memphis Blues" followed in the same year. The first recording by an African American singer was Mamie Smith's 1920 rendition of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues". But the origins of the blues date back to some decades earlier, probably around 1890.[28] They are very poorly documented, due in part to discrimination within American society, including academic circles,[29] and to the low alphabetization of the rural African American community.[30] Chroniclers began to report about blues music in Southern Texas and Deep South at the dawn of the 20th century. In particular, Charles Peabody mentions the appearance of blues music at Clarksdale, Mississippi and Gate Thomas reports very similar songs in southern Texas around 1901–1902. These observations coincide more or less with the remembrance of Jelly Roll Morton, who declared having heard blues for the first time in New Orleans in 1902; Ma Rainey, who remembered her first blues experience the same year in Missouri; and W.C. Handy, who first heard the blues in Tutwiler, Mississippi in 1903. The first extensive research in the field was performed by Howard W. Odum, who published a large anthology of folk songs in the counties of Lafayette, Mississippi and Newton, Georgia between 1905 and 1908.[31] The first non-commercial recordings of blues music, termed "proto-blues" by Paul Oliver, were made by Odum at the very beginning of the 20th century for research purposes. They are now utterly lost.[32] Other recordings which are still available were made in 1924 by Lawrence Gellert. Later, several recordings were made by Robert W. Gordon, who became head of the Archive of American Folk Songs of the Library of Congress. Gordon's successor at the Library was John Lomax. In the 1930s, together with his son Alan, Lomax made a large number of non-commercial blues recordings which bear testimony to the huge variety of proto-blues styles, such as field hollers and ring shouts.[33] A record of blues music as it existed before the 1920s is also given by the recordings of artists such as Lead Belly[34] or Henry Thomas[35] who both performed archaic blues music. All these sources show the existence of many different structures distinct from the twelve-, eight-, or sixteen-bar.[36][37]
The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully known.[38] The first appearance of the blues is often dated after the Emancipation Act of 1863,[29] between 1870 and 1900, a period that coincides with Emancipation and, later, the development of juke joints as places where Blacks went to listen to music, dance, or gamble after a hard day's work.[39] This period corresponds to the transition from slavery to sharecropping, small-scale agricultural production, and the expansion of railroads in the southern United States. Several scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the enslaved people. According to Lawrence Levine, "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of Booker T. Washington's teachings, and the rise of the blues." Levine states that "psychologically, socially, and economically, African-Americans were being acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did."[40]
There are few characteristics common to all blues music, because the genre took its shape from the idiosyncrasies of individual performances.[41] However, there are some characteristics that were present long before the creation of the modern blues. Call-and-response shouts were an early form of blues-like music; they were a "functional expression ... style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure."[42] A form of this pre-blues was heard in slave ring shouts and field hollers, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content".[43]
Blues has evolved from the unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of slaves imported from West Africa (principally present-day Mali, Senegal, the Gambia and Ghana)[44][45] and rural blacks into a wide variety of styles and subgenres, with regional variations across the United States. Though blues, as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European harmonic structure and the African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of voice and guitar,[46][47] the blues form itself bears no resemblance to the melodic styles of the West African griots, and the influences are faint and tenuous.[48][49] In particular, no specific African musical form can be identified as the single direct ancestor of the blues.[50] However many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to the music of Africa. That blue notes pre-date their use in blues and have an African origin is attested by English composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's "A Negro Love Song", from his The African Suite for Piano composed in 1898, which contains blue third and seventh notes.[51] The Diddley bow (a homemade one-stringed instrument found in parts of the American South in the early twentieth century) and the banjo are African-derived instruments that may have helped in the transfer of African performance techniques into the early blues instrumental vocabulary.[52] The banjo seems to be directly imported from western African music. It is similar to the musical instrument that griots played (called halam or akonting by African peoples such as the Wolof, Fula and Madinka).[53] However, in the 1920s, when country blues began to be recorded, the use of the banjo in blues music was quite marginal and limited to individuals such as Papa Charlie Jackson and later Gus Cannon.[54]
Blues music also adopted elements from the "Ethiopian airs", minstrel shows and Negro spirituals, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment.[55] The style also was closely related to ragtime, which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic patterns of African music".[56]
The musical forms and styles that are now considered the "blues" as well as modern "country music" arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called "race music" and "hillbilly music" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country," except for the ethnicity of the performer, and even that was sometimes documented incorrectly by record companies.[57][58] Though musicologists can now attempt to define “the blues” narrowly in terms of certain chord structures and lyric strategies thought to have originated in West Africa, audiences originally heard the music in a far more general way: it was simply the music of the rural south, notably the Mississippi Delta. Black and white musicians shared the same repertoire and thought of themselves as “songsters” rather than “blues musicians.” The notion of blues as a separate genre arose during the black migration from the countryside to urban areas in the 1920s and the simultaneous development of the recording industry. “Blues” became a code word for a record designed to sell to black listeners.[59]
The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community, the spirituals. The origins of spirituals go back much further than the blues, usually dating back to the middle of the 18th century, when the slaves were Christianized and began to sing and play Christian hymns, in particular those of Isaac Watts, which were very popular.[60] Before the blues gained its formal definition in terms of chord progressions, it was defined as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. It was the low-down music played by the rural Blacks. Depending on the religious community a musician belonged to, it was more or less considered as a sin to play this low-down music: blues was the devil's music. Musicians were therefore segregated into two categories: gospel and blues singers, guitar preachers and songsters. However, at the time rural Black music began to get recorded in the 1920s, both categories of musicians used very similar techniques: call-and-response patterns, blue notes, and slide guitars. Gospel music was nevertheless using musical forms that were compatible with Christian hymns and therefore less marked by the blues form than its secular counterpart.[61]
Prewar blues
The American sheet music publishing industry produced a great deal of ragtime music. By 1912, the sheet music industry had published three popular blues-like compositions, precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blues elements: "Baby Seals' Blues" by "Baby" F. Seals (arranged by Artie Matthews), "Dallas Blues" by Hart Wand and "The Memphis Blues" by W. C. Handy.[62]
Sheet music from "St. Louis Blues" (1914)Handy was a formally trained musician, composer and arranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolific composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues"; however, his compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime;[23][63] Handy's signature work was the "St. Louis Blues".
In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music, reaching white audiences via Handy's arrangements and the classic female blues performers. The blues evolved from informal performances in bars to entertainment in theaters. Blues performances were organized by the Theater Owners Bookers Association in nightclubs such as the Cotton Club and juke joints such as the bars along Beale Street in Memphis. Several record companies, such as the American Record Corporation, Okeh Records, and Paramount Records, began to record African American music.
As the recording industry grew, country blues performers like Bo Carter, Blind Lemon Jefferson, Lonnie Johnson, Tampa Red and Blind Blake became more popular in the African American community. Kentucky-born Sylvester Weaver was in 1923 the first to record the slide guitar style, in which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade or the sawed-off neck of a bottle.[64] The slide guitar became an important part of the Delta blues.[65] The first blues recordings from the 1920s are categorized as a traditional, rural country blues and a more polished 'city' or urban blues.
Country blues performers often improvised, either without accompaniment or with only a banjo or guitar. Regional styles of country blues varied widely in the early 20th century. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy sparse style with passionate vocals accompanied by slide guitar. The little-recorded Robert Johnson[66] combined elements of urban and rural blues. In addition to Robert Johnson, influential performers of this style included his predecessors Charley Patton and Son House. Singers such as Blind Willie McTell and Blind Boy Fuller performed in the southeastern "delicate and lyrical" Piedmont blues tradition, which used an elaborate ragtime-based fingerpicking guitar technique. Georgia also had an early slide tradition[67] with George Carter, Curley Weaver, Tampa Red, "Barbecue Bob" Hicks and James "Kokomo" Arnold as representatives of this style.[68]
The lively Memphis blues style, which developed in the 1920s and 1930s near Memphis, Tennessee, was influenced by jug bands such as the Memphis Jug Band or the Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers. Performers such as Frank Stokes, Blind Old Tom Anderson, Sleepy John Estes, Robert Wilkins, Big Boy Brazier, Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie used a variety of unusual instruments such as washboard, fiddle, kazoo or mandolin. Memphis Minnie was famous for her virtuoso guitar style. Pianist Memphis Slim began his career in Memphis, but his distinct style was smoother and had some swing elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late 1930s or early 1940s and became part of the urban blues movement, which blended country music and electric blues.[69][70][71]
Bessie Smith, an early blues singer, was known for her powerful voice.City or urban blues styles were more codified and elaborate as a performer was no longer within their local, immediate community and had to adapt to a larger, more varied audience's aesthetic.[72] Classic female urban and vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s, among them Mamie Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie Smith, more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the first African-American to record a blues in 1920; her second record, "Crazy Blues", sold 75,000 copies in its first month.[73] Ma Rainey, the "Mother of Blues", and Bessie Smith each "[sang] around center tones, perhaps in order to project her voice more easily to the back of a room." Smith would "...sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was unsurpassed."[74] Urban male performers included popular black musicians of the era, such Tampa Red, Big Bill Broonzy and Leroy Carr. Before WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as "the Guitar Wizard". Carr accompanied himself on the piano with Scrapper Blackwell on guitar, a format that continued well into the 50s with people such as Charles Brown, and even Nat "King" Cole.[65]
A typical boogie-woogie basslineBoogie-woogie was another important style of 1930s and early 1940s urban blues.[75] While the style is often associated with solo piano, boogie-woogie was also used to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos. Boogie-Woogie style was characterized by a regular bass figure, an ostinato or riff and shifts of level in the left hand, elaborating each chord and trills and decorations in the right hand. Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based Jimmy Yancey and the Boogie-Woogie Trio (Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson and Meade Lux Lewis).[76] Chicago boogie-woogie performers included Clarence "Pine Top" Smith and Earl Hines, who "linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand."[72] The smooth Louisiana style of Professor Longhair and, more recently, Dr. John blends classic rhythm and blues with blues styles.
Another development in this period was big band blues.[77] The "territory bands" operating out of Kansas City, the Benny Moten orchestra, Jay McShann, and the Count Basie Orchestra were also concentrating on the blues, with 12-bar blues instrumentals such as Basie's "One O'Clock Jump" and "Jumpin' at the Woodside" and boisterous "blues shouting" by Jimmy Rushing on songs like "Going to Chicago" and "Sent for You Yesterday". A well-known big band blues tune is Glenn Miller's "In the Mood". In the 1940s, the jump blues style developed. Jump blues grew up from the boogie woogie wave and was stronly influenced by big band music. It uses saxophone or other brass instruments and the guitar in the rhythm section to create a jazzy, up-tempo sound with declamatory vocals. Jump blues tunes by Louis Jordan and Big Joe Turner, based in Kansas City, Missouri, influenced the development of later styles such as rock and roll and rhythm and blues.[78] Dallas-born T-Bone Walker, which is often associated to the California blues style,[79] performed a successful transition from the early urban blues à la Lonnie Johnson and Leroy Carr to the jump blues style and dominated the blues-jazz scene at Los Angeles during the 1940s.[80]
1950s
The transition from country to urban blues, that began in the 1920s, had always been driven by the successive waves of economic crisis and booms and the associated move of the rural Blacks to urban areas, the Great Migration. The long boom in the aftermath of World War II induced a massive migration of the African American population, the Second Great Migration, which was accompanied by a significant increase of the real income of the urban Blacks. The new migrants constituted a new market for the music industry. The name race record disappeared and was succeeded by Rhythm and Blues. This rapidly evolving market was mirrored by the Billboard Rhythm and Blues Chart. This marketing strategy reinforced trends within urban blues music such as the progressive electrification of the instruments, their amplification and the generalization of the blues beat, the blues shuffle, that became ubiquitous in R&B. This commercial stream had important consequences for blues music which, together with Jazz and Gospel music, became a component of the R&B wave.[81]
Muddy Waters, described as "the guiding light of the modern blues school"[82]After World War II and in the 1950s, new styles of electric blues music became popular in cities such as Chicago,[83] Memphis,[84] Detroit[85][86] and St. Louis.[87] Electric blues used amplified electric guitars, double bass which was progressively replaced by bass guitar, drums, and harmonica played through a microphone and a PA system or a guitar amplifier. Chicago became a center for electric blues from 1948 on, when Muddy Waters recorded his first success: "I Can't Be Satisfied".[88] Chicago blues is influenced to a large extent by the Mississippi blues style, because many performers had migrated from the Mississippi region. Howlin' Wolf,[89] Muddy Waters,[90] Willie Dixon,[91] and Jimmy Reed[92] were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicago during the Great Migration. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar, harmonica, and a rhythm section of bass and drums. J. T. Brown who played in Elmore James's bands,[93] or J. B. Lenoir's[94] also used saxophones, but these were used more as "backing" or rhythmic support than as solo instruments.
Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller) are well known harmonica (called "harp" by blues musicians) players of the early Chicago blues scene. Other harp players such as Big Walter Horton were also influential. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were known for their deep, "gravelly" voices.
Bassist and composer Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote many standard blues songs of the period, such as "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You" (both penned for Muddy Waters) and, "Wang Dang Doodle" and "Back Door Man" for Howlin' Wolf. Most artists of the Chicago blues style recorded for the Chicago-based Chess Records and Checker Records labels. Smaller blues labels of this era included Vee-Jay Records and J.O.B. Records. During the early 1950s, the Chicagoean labels were concurenced by Sam Phillips' Sun Records company in Memphis which recorded B. B. King and Howlin' Wolf before he moved to Chicago in 1960.[95] After Phillips discovered Elvis Presley in 1954, the Sun label turned to the rapidly expanding white audience and started recording mostly rock 'n' roll.[96]
In the 1950s, blues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular music. While popular musicians like Bo Diddley[85] and Chuck Berry,[97] both recording for Chess, were influenced by the Chicago blues, their enthusiastic playing styles departed from the melancholy aspects of blues. Chicago blues also influenced Louisiana's zydeco music,[98] with Clifton Chenier[99] using blues accents. Zydeco musicians used electric solo guitar and cajun arrangements of blues standards.
Otis Rush, a pioneer of the 'West Side Sound'In the late 1950s, a new blues style emerged on Chicago's West Side pioneered by Magic Sam, Buddy Guy and Otis Rush on Cobra Records.[100] The 'West Side Sound' had strong rhythmic support from a rhythm guitar, bass guitar and drums and as pefected by Guy, Freddie King, Magic Slim and Luther Allison was dominated by amplified electric lead guitar.[101][102]
John Lee Hooker created his own blues style and renewed it several times during his long career.Other blues artists, such as John Lee Hooker had influences not directly related to the Chicago style. John Lee Hooker's blues is more "personal", based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his "groovy" style is sometimes called "guitar boogie". His first hit, "Boogie Chillen", reached #1 on the R&B charts in 1949.[103]
By the late 1950s, the swamp blues genre developed near Baton Rouge, with performers such as Lightnin' Slim,[104] Slim Harpo,[105] Sam Myers and Jerry McCain. Strongly influenced by Jimmy Reed, Swamp blues has a slower pace and a simpler use of the harmonica than the Chicago blues style performers such as Little Walter or Muddy Waters. Songs from this genre include "Scratch my Back", "She's Tough" and "I'm a King Bee".
1960s and 1970s
By the beginning of the 1960s, genres influenced by African American music such as rock and roll and soul were part of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought African-American music to new audiences, both within the US and abroad. However, the blues wave which brought artists such as Muddy Waters to the foreground had stopped. Bluesmen such as Big Bill Broonzy and Willie Dixon started looking for new markets in Europe. Dick Waterman and the blues festivals he organized in Europe played a major role in propagating blues music abroad. In the UK, bands emulated US blues legends, and UK blues-rock-based bands had an influential role throughout the 1960s.[106]
Blues legend B.B. King with his guitar, "Lucille".Blues performers such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such as New York–born Taj Mahal. John Lee Hooker blended his blues style with rock elements and playing with younger white musicians, creating a musical style that can be heard on the 1971 album Endless Boogie. B. B. King's virtuoso guitar technique earned him the eponymous title "king of the blues". In contrast to the Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support from a saxophone, trumpet, and trombone, instead of using slide guitar or harp. Tennessee-born Bobby "Blue" Bland, like B. B. King, also straddled the blues and R&B genres. During this period, Freddie King and Albert King often played with rock and soul musicians (Eric Clapton, Booker T & the MGs)and had a major influence on those styles of music.
The music of the Civil Rights[107] and Free Speech movements in the US prompted a resurgence of interest in American roots music and early African American music. As well as Jimmi Bass Music festivals such as the Newport Folk Festival[108] brought traditional blues to a new audience, which helped to revive interest in prewar acoustic blues and performers such as Son House, Mississippi John Hurt, Skip James, and Reverend Gary Davis.[107] Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished by the Yazoo Records. J. B. Lenoir from the Chicago blues movement in the 1950s recorded several LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. His songs, originally distributed in Europe only,[109] commented on political issues such as racism or Vietnam War issues, which was unusual for this period. His Alabama Blues recording had a song that stated:
I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x)
You know they killed my sister and my brother,
and the whole world let them peoples go down there free
White audiences' interest in the blues during the 1960s increased due to the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the British blues movement. The style of British blues developed in the UK, when bands such as The Animals, Fleetwood Mac, John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers, The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and Cream and Irish musician Rory Gallagher performed classic blues songs from the Delta or Chicago blues traditions.[110] Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs.
The British and blues musicians of the early 1960s inspired a number of American blues rock fusion performers, including Canned Heat, the early Jefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, The J. Geils Band, Ry Cooder, James Montgomery Blues Band and The Allman Brothers Band. One blues rock performer, Jimi Hendrix, was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played psychedelic rock. Hendrix was a skilled guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of distortion and feedback in his music.[111] Through these artists and others, blues music influenced the development of rock music.[112]
Since the early 1970s, The Texas rock-blues style emerged which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. In contrast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Major artists of the Texas style are Johnny Winter, Stevie Ray Vaughan, The Fabulous Thunderbirds, and ZZ Top. These artists all began their musical journey in the 1970s, but they did not achieve major international success until the next decade.[113]
1980s to the 2000s
Since the 1980s, there has been a resurgence of interest in the blues among a certain part of the African-American population, particularly around Jackson, Mississippi and other deep South regions. Often termed "soul blues" or "Southern soul", the music at the heart of this movement was given new life by the unexpected success of two particular recordings on the Jackson-based Malaco label:[114] Z. Z. Hill's Down Home Blues (1982) and Little Milton's The Blues is Alright (1984). Contemporary African-American performers who work this vein of the blues include Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle, Sir Charles Jones, Bettye LaVette, Marvin Sease and Peggy Scott-Adams.
Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray VaughanDuring the 1980s, blues also continued in both traditional and new forms. In 1986, the album Strong Persuader revealed Robert Cray as a major blues artist.[115] The first Stevie Ray Vaughan recording, Texas Flood, was released in 1983, and the Texas-based guitarist exploded onto the international stage. 1989 saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's popularity with the album The Healer. Eric Clapton, known for his performances with the Blues Breakers and Cream, made a comeback in the 1990s with his album Unplugged, in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. However, the technological progresses which appeared in the 1990s in the domain of digital multitrack recording, and the evolution of the marketing strategies, which now include the production of video clips, have led to an increase of the costs of production and also to some loss of the spontaneity and improvisation which always have been an important component of blues music.[116]
In the 1980s and 1990s, blues publications such as Living Blues and Blues Revue began to be distributed, major cities began forming blues societies, outdoor blues festivals became more common, and[117] more nightclubs and venues for blues emerged.[118]
In the 1990s, blues performers explored a range of musical genres, as can be seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards, previously named W. C. Handy Awards[119] or of the Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary and Traditional Blues Album. Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several blues labels such as: Alligator Records, Black & Tan Records, Ruf Records, Chess Records (MCA), Delmark Records, NorthernBlues Music, and Vanguard Records (Artemis Records). Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of blues rarities such as Arhoolie Records, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (heir of Folkways Records) and Yazoo Records (Shanachie Records).[120]
Young blues artists today are exploring all aspects of the blues, from classic delta to more rock-oriented blues, artists born after 1970 such as John Mayer, Sean Costello, Shannon Curfman, Anthony Gomes, Shemekia Copeland, Jonny Lang, Corey Harris, Susan Tedeschi, Joe Bonamassa, Michelle Malone,The White Stripes, North Mississippi Allstars, Gracie B, Everlast, The Black Keys, Bob Log III, Jose P and Hillstomp developing their own styles.[121] Memphis, Texas-based William Daniel McFalls, also known as "Blues Boy Willie" is a performer of traditional blues.
Musical impact
Blues musical styles, forms (12-bar blues), melodies, and the blues scale have influenced many other genres of music, such as rock and roll, jazz, and popular music.[122] Prominent jazz, folk or rock performers, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan and the White Stripes have performed significant blues recordings. The blues scale is often used in popular songs like Harold Arlen's "Blues in the Night", blues ballads like "Since I Fell for You" and "Please Send Me Someone to Love", and even in orchestral works such as George Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" and "Concerto in F". Gershwin's second "Prelude" for solo piano is an interesting example of a classical blues, maintaining the form with academic strictness. The blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs many modal frames, especially the ladder of thirds used in rock music (e.g., in "A Hard Day's Night"). Blues forms are used in the theme to the televised Batman, teen idol Fabian's hit, "Turn Me Loose", country music star Jimmie Rodgers' music, and guitarist/vocalist Tracy Chapman's hit "Give Me One Reason".
R&B music can be traced back to spirituals and blues. Musically, spirituals were a descendant of New England choral traditions, and in particular of Isaac Watts's hymns, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the African-American community are much better documented than the "low-down" blues. Spiritual singing developed because African-American communities could gather for mass or worship gatherings, which were called camp meetings.
Early country bluesmen such as Skip James, Charley Patton, Georgia Tom Dorsey played country and urban blues and had influences from spiritual singing. Dorsey helped to popularize Gospel music.[123] Gospel music developed in the 1930s, with the Golden Gate Quartet. In the 1950s, soul music by Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and James Brown used gospel and blues music elements. In the 1960s and 1970s, gospel and blues were these merged in soul blues music. Funk music of the 1970s was influenced by soul; funk can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and contemporary R&B.
Duke Ellington straddled the big band and bebop genres. Ellington extensively used the blues form.[124]Before World War II, the boundaries between blues and jazz were less clear. Usually jazz had harmonic structures stemming from brass bands, whereas blues had blues forms such as the 12-bar blues. However, the jump blues of the 1940s mixed both styles. After WWII, blues had a substantial influence on jazz. Bebop classics, such as Charlie Parker's "Now's the Time", used the blues form with the pentatonic scale and blue notes. Bebop marked a major shift in the role of jazz, from a popular style of music for dancing, to a "high-art," less-accessible, cerebral "musician's music". The audience for both blues and jazz split, and the border between blues and jazz became more defined. Artists straddling the boundary between jazz and blues are categorized into the jazz blues sub-genre.[124][125]
The blues' twelve-bar structure and the blues scale was a major influence on rock and roll music. Rock and roll has been called "blues with a backbeat"; Carl Perkins called rockabilly "blues with a country beat". Rockabillies were also said to be twelve-bar blues played with a bluegrass beat. "Hound Dog", with its unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant), is a blues song transformed into a rock and roll song. Jerry Lee Lewis's style of rock and roll was heavily influenced by the blues and its derivative boogie woogie. His style of music was not exactly rockabilly but it has been often called real rock and roll (this is a label he shares with several African American rock and roll performers).[126][127]
Early country music was infused with the blues.[128] Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Bob Wills, Bill Monroe and Hank Williams have all described themselves as blues singers and their music has a blues feel that is different to the country pop of Eddy Arnold. A lot of the 1970s-era "outlaw" country music by Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings also borrowed from the blues. When Jerry Lee Lewis returned to country after the decline of 1950s style rock and roll, he sang his country with a blues feel and often included blues standards on his albums. Many early rock and roll songs are based on blues: "That's All Right Mama", "Johnny B. Goode", "Blue Suede Shoes", "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On", "Shake, Rattle, and Roll", and "Long Tall Sally". The early African American rock musicians retained the sexual themes and innuendos of blues music: "Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do" ("Tutti Frutti", Little Richard) or "See the girl with the red dress on, She can do the Birdland all night long" ("What'd I Say", Ray Charles
In popular culture
The music of Taj Mahal for the 1972 movie Sounder marked a revival of interest in acoustic blues.Like jazz, rock and roll, heavy metal music, hip hop music, reggae, country music, and pop music, blues has been accused of being the "devil's music" and of inciting violence and other poor behavior.[129] In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s.[63] In the early twentieth century, W.C. Handy was the first to popularize blues-influenced music among non-black Americans.
During the blues revival of the 1960s and '70s, acoustic blues artist Taj Mahal and legendary Texas bluesman Lightnin' Hopkins wrote and performed music that figured prominently in the popularly and critically acclaimed film Sounder (1972). The film earned Mahal a Grammy nomination for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture and a BAFTA nomination.[130] Almost 30 years later, Mahal wrote blues for, and performed a banjo composition, claw-hammer style, in the 2001 movie release "Songcatcher," which focused on the story of the preservation of the roots music of Appalachia.
Perhaps the most visible example of the blues style of music in the late 20th century came in 1980, when Dan Aykroyd and John Landis released the film The Blues Brothers. The film drew many of the biggest living influenciers of the Rhythm and blues genre together, such as Ray Charles, James Brown, Cab Calloway, Aretha Franklin, and John Lee Hooker. The band formed also began a successful tour under the Blues Brothers marquee. 1998 brought a sequel, Blues Brothers 2000 that, while not holding as great a critical and financial success, featured a much larger number of blues artists, such as B.B. King, Bo Diddley, Erykah Badu, Eric Clapton, Steve Winwood, Charlie Musselwhite, Blues Traveller, Jimmy Vaughn, Jeff Baxter.
In 2003, Martin Scorsese made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience. He asked several famous directors such as Clint Eastwood and Wim Wenders to participate in a series of documentary films for PBS called The Blues.[131] He also participated in the rendition of compilations of major blues artists in a series of high-quality CDs. Blues guitarist and vocalist Keb' Mo' performed his blues rendition of "America, the Beautiful" in 2006 to close out the final season of the television series The West Wing.
Source: Wikipedia
Breathing
Breathing is the process that takes oxygen in and carbon dioxide out of the body. Aerobic organisms require oxygen to release energy via respiration, in the form of the metabolism of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea.
Breathing is only part of the processes that deliver oxygen to where it is needed in the body and remove carbon dioxide. The process of gas exchange occurs in the alveoli by passive diffusion of gases between the alveolar gas and the blood passing by in the lung capillaries. Once these dissolved gases are in the blood, the heart powers their flow around the body (via the circulatory system).
In addition to removing carbon dioxide, breathing results in loss of water from the body. Exhaled air has a relative humidity of 100% because of water diffusing across the moist surface of breathing passages and alveoli.
Contents
1 Mechanics
2 Control of breathing
2.1 Conscious control
2.2 Unconscious control
2.2.1 Examples
2.3 Interaction
2.4 Breathing in the sick
3 Relationship to death
4 Breathing in gas
4.1 Components
4.2 Air pressure
5 Cultural significance
6 See also
7 References
Mechanics
In mammals, breathing in, or inhaling, is usually an active movement, with the contraction of the diaphragm muscle. This is known as negative pressure breathing. Normally, the diaphragm's relaxed position recoils (decreasing the thoracic volume) whereas in the contracted position it is pulled downwards (increasing the thoracic volume). This process works in conjunction with the intercostal muscles connected to the rib cage. Contraction of these muscles lifts the rib cage, thus aiding in increasing the thoracic volume. Relaxation of the diaphragm compresses the lungs, effectively decreasing their volume while increasing the pressure inside them. The intercostal muscles simultaneously relax, further decreasing the volume of the lungs. With a pathway to the mouth or nose clear, this increased pressure forces air out of the lungs. Conversely, contraction of the diaphragm increases the volume of the (partially empty) lungs, decreasing the pressure inside, which creates a partial vacuum. Environmental air then follows its pressure gradient down to fill the lungs.
In amphibians, the process used is positive pressure breathing. Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, enlarging it and drawing in air through the nostrils (which uses the same mechanics - pressure, volume, and diffusion - as a mammalian lung). With the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the oral cavity is forced up, which forces air down the trachea into the lungs.
At rest, breathing out, or exhaling, is a combination of passive and active processes powered by the elastic recoil of the alveoli, similar to a deflating balloon, and the contraction of the muscular body wall. The following organs are used in respiration: the mouth; the nose and nostrils; the pharynx; the larynx; the trachea; the bronchi and bronchioles; the lungs; the diaphragm; and the terminal branches of the respiratory tree, such as the alveoli.
Control of breathing
Main article: Control of respiration
Breathing is one of the few bodily functions which, within limits, can be controlled both consciously and sub-consciously.
Conscious control
Conscious control of breathing is common in many forms of meditation, specifically forms of yoga for example pranayama unlike anapana which is only awareness of breath. In swimming, cardio fitness, speech or vocal training, one learns to discipline one's breathing, initially consciously but later sub-consciously, for purposes other than life support. Human speech is also dependent on conscious breath control. Also breathing control is used in Buteyko method.
Unconscious control
Unconsciously, breathing is controlled by specialized centers in the brainstem, which automatically regulate the rate and depth of breathing depending on the body’s needs at any time. When carbon dioxide levels increase in the blood, it reacts with the water in blood, producing carbonic acid. Lactic acid produced by anaerobic exercise also lowers pH. The drop in the blood's pH stimulates chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies in the blood system to send nerve impulses to the respiration centre in the medulla oblongata and pons in the brain. These, in turn send nerve impulses through the phrenic and thoracic nerves to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles, increasing the rate of breathing. Even a slight difference in the blood's normal pH, 7.4, could cause death, so this is an important process.[citation needed]
This automatic control of respiration can be impaired in premature babies, or by drugs or disease.
Examples
For instance, while exercising, the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases due to increased cellular respiration by the muscles, which activates carotid and aortic bodies and the respiration center, which ultimately cause a higher rate of respiration.
During rest, the level of carbon dioxide is lower, so breathing rate is lower. This ensures an appropriate amount of oxygen is delivered to the muscles and other organs. It is important to reiterate that it is the buildup of carbon dioxide making the blood acidic that elicits the desperation for a breath much more than lack of oxygen.
Interaction
It is not possible for a healthy person to voluntarily stop breathing indefinitely. If we do not inhale, the level of carbon dioxide builds up in our blood, and we experience overwhelming air hunger. This irrepressible reflex is not surprising given that without breathing, the body's internal oxygen levels drop dangerously low within minutes, leading to permanent brain damage followed eventually by death. However, there have been instances where people have survived for as long as two hours without air; this is only possible when submerged in cold water, as this triggers the mammalian diving reflex [1] as well as putting the subject into a state of suspended animation.
If a healthy person were to voluntarily stop breathing (i.e. hold his or her breath) for a long enough amount of time, he or she would lose consciousness, and the body would resume breathing on its own. Because of this one cannot commit suicide with this method, unless one's breathing was also restricted by something else (e.g. water, see drowning)
Hyperventilating causes a drop in CO2 below normal levels, lowering blood and oxygen supply to vital organs due to CO2-induced vasoconstriction and suppressed Bohr effect. Voluntary hyperventilation can cause tissue oxygen levels to go to dangerously low levels leading to, for example, fainting due to brain hypoxia.
Breathing in the sick
Medical respiratory data (see the table below) suggest that sick people breathe about 2-3 times more air at rest than the medical norm.
Condition Minute ventilation (± standard deviation) Number of patients Reference
Normal breathing 6 l/min None Medical textbooks: [2] [3] [4] [5]
Asthma 12 l/min 101 [6]
Asthma 15 l/min 8 [7]
Asthma 14.1 (±5.7) l/min 39 [8]
Heart disease 14 (±4) l/min 88 [9]
Heart disease 12.2 (±3.3) l/min 132 [10]
Heart disease 16 (±2) l/min 11 [11]
Heart disease 15 (±4) l/min 22 [12]
Diabetes 10-20 l/min 28 [13]
Diabetes 12-17 l/min 26 [14]
Cystic fibrosis 11-14 l/min 6 [15]
Cystic fibrosis 13 (±1.8) l/min 10 [16]
COPD 12.2 (±1.9) l/min 10 [17]
Liver cirrhosis 11-18 l/min 24 [18]
Hyperthyroidism 14.9 (±0.6) l/min 42 [19]
Epilepsy 12.8 l/min 12 [20]
(Source: http://www.normalbreathing.com/ ) There are many more medical studies that found 100% prevalence of chronic hyperventilation in patients with various chronic diseases.
Relationship to death
Most organisms breathe to avoid death by asphyxiation. Breath is sometimes used as a metaphor for life itself, and often "last breath" is the most obvious sign that death has occurred. The association between the end of life and breathing is not absolute, as scientists have discovered the brain/mind can continue to function for a few minutes without the continuation of oxygen and/or its properties. Though thought to "restart" breathing, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) only circulates blood through the body.
Breathing in gas
Components
Oxygen is the essential component of all breathing gases.
The air we inhale is roughly 78% by volume nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.96% argon and 0.04% carbon dioxide, helium, water, and other gases. In addition to air, underwater divers often breathe oxygen-rich or helium-rich gas mixes. Oxygen and analgesic gases are sometimes given to patients under medical care. The atmosphere in space suits is pure oxygen. Also our reliance on this relatively small amount of oxygen can cause over activity or euphoria in pure or oxygen rich environments.
The permanent gases in gas we exhale are roughly 4% to 5% carbon dioxide and 4% to 5% less oxygen than was inhaled. Additionally vapors and trace gases are present: 5% water vapor, several parts per million (ppm) of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, 1 part per million (ppm) of ammonia and less than 1 ppm of acetone, methanol, ethanol (unless ethanol has been ingested, in which case much higher concentrations would occur in the breath, cf. Breathalyzer) and other volatile organic compounds. The exact amount of exhaled oxygen and carbon dioxide varies according to the fitness, energy expenditure and diet of that particular person.
Air pressure
Atmospheric air at altitude is at a lower pressure than at sea level due to the lesser weight of the air above. This lower pressure can lead to altitude sickness, or hypoxia.
Gases breathed underwater are at higher pressure than at sea level due to the added weight of water. This can lead to nitrogen narcosis, oxygen toxicity, or decompression sickness.
Cultural significance
In Tai Chi Chuan, aerobic training is combined with breathing to exercise the diaphragm muscles, and to train effective posture, which both make better use of the body's energy. In music, breath is used to play wind instruments and many aerophones. Laughter, physically, is simply repeated sharp breaths. Hiccups and yawns are other breath-related phenomena.
Ancients commonly linked the breath to a life force. The Hebrew Bible refers to God breathing the breath of life into clay to make Adam a living soul (nephesh). It also refers to the breath as returning to God when a mortal dies. The terms "spirit," "qi," and "psyche"[21] are related to the concept of breath.
See also
Apnea (suspension of breathing)
Diaphragmatic breathing
Kussmaul breathing
Agonal breathing
Cheyne-Stokes respiration
Biot's respiration
Mouth breathing
Nose breathing
Pneuma
Prana
Qi
Respiratory rate
Spirit
Halitosis
Liquid breathing
Carbon cycle
References
^ Ramey CA, Ramey DN, Hayward JS. Dive response of children in relation to cold-water near drowning. J Appl Physiol 2001;62(2):665-8.Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002).Adapted from Victoria E. McMillan (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001). See it cited here
^ Ganong WF, Review of medical physiology, 15-th ed., 1995, Prentice Hall Int., London.
^ Guyton AC, Physiology of the human body, 6-th ed., 1984, Suanders College Publ., Philadelphia.
^ McArdle W.D., Katch F.I., Katch V.L., Essentials of exercise physiology (2-nd edition); Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, London 2000.
^ Straub NC, Section V, The Respiratory System, in Physiology, eds. RM Berne & MN Levy, 4-th edition, Mosby, St. Louis, 1998.
^ McFadden ER & Lyons HA, Arterial-blood gases in asthma, The New Engl J of Med 1968 May 9, 278 (19): 1027-1032.
^ Johnson BD, Scanlon PD, Beck KC, Regulation of ventilatory capacity during exercise in asthmatics, J Appl Physiol. 1995 Sep; 79(3): 892-901.
^ Bowler SD, Green A, Mitchell CA, Buteyko breathing techniques in asthma: a blinded randomised controlled trial, Med J of Australia 1998; 169: 575-578.
^ Clark AL, Chua TP, Coats AJ, Anatomical dead space, ventilatory pattern, and exercise capacity in chronic heart failure, Br Heart J 1995 Oct; 74(4): 377-380.
^ Fanfulla F, Mortara , Maestri R, Pinna GD, Bruschi C, Cobelli F, Rampulla C, The development of hyperventilation in patients with chronic heart failure and Cheyne-Stokes respiration, Chest 1998; 114; p. 1083-1090.
^ Johnson BD, Beck KC, Olson LJ, O'Malley KA, Allison TG, Squires RW, Gau GT, Ventilatory constraints during exercise in patients with chronic heart failure, Chest 2000 Feb; 117(2): 321-332.
^ Dimopoulou I, Tsintzas OK, Alivizatos PA, Tzelepis GE, Pattern of breathing during progressive exercise in chronic heart failure, Int J Cardiol. 2001 Dec; 81(2-3): 117-121.
^ Tantucci C, Scionti L, Bottini P, Dottorini ML, Puxeddu E, Casucci G, Sorbini CA, Influence of autonomic neuropathy of different severities on the hypercapnic drive to breathing in diabetic patients, Chest. 1997 Jul; 112(1): 145-153.
^ Bottini P, Dottorini ML, M. Cordoni MC, Casucci G, Tantucci C, Sleep-disordered breathing in nonobese diabetic subjects with autonomic neuropathy, Eur Respir J 2003; 22: p. 654–660.
^ Tepper RS, Skatrud B, Dempsey JA, Ventilation and oxygenation changes during sleep in cystic fibrosis, Chest 1983; 84; p. 388-393.
^ Bell SC, Saunders MJ, Elborn JS, Shale DJ, Resting energy expenditure and oxygen cost of breathing in patients with cystic fibrosis, Thorax 1996 Feb; 51(2): 126-131.
^ Sinderby C, Spahija J, Beck J, Kaminski D, Yan S, Comtois N, Sliwinski P, Diaphragm activation during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 Jun; 163(7): 1637-1641.
^ Epstein SK, Zilberberg MD; Facoby C, Ciubotaru RL, Kaplan LM, Response to symptom-limited exercise in patients with the hepatopulmonary syndrome, Chest 1998; 114; p. 736-741.
^ Kahaly GJ, Nieswandt J, Wagner S, Schlegel J, Mohr-Kahaly S, Hommel G, Ineffective cardiorespiratory function in hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998 Nov; 83(11): 4075-4078.
^ Esquivel E, Chaussain M, Plouin P, Ponsot G, Arthuis M, Physical exercise and voluntary hyperventilation in childhood absence epilepsy, Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1991 Aug; 79(2): 127-132.
Source: Wikipedia
Breathing is only part of the processes that deliver oxygen to where it is needed in the body and remove carbon dioxide. The process of gas exchange occurs in the alveoli by passive diffusion of gases between the alveolar gas and the blood passing by in the lung capillaries. Once these dissolved gases are in the blood, the heart powers their flow around the body (via the circulatory system).
In addition to removing carbon dioxide, breathing results in loss of water from the body. Exhaled air has a relative humidity of 100% because of water diffusing across the moist surface of breathing passages and alveoli.
Contents
1 Mechanics
2 Control of breathing
2.1 Conscious control
2.2 Unconscious control
2.2.1 Examples
2.3 Interaction
2.4 Breathing in the sick
3 Relationship to death
4 Breathing in gas
4.1 Components
4.2 Air pressure
5 Cultural significance
6 See also
7 References
Mechanics
In mammals, breathing in, or inhaling, is usually an active movement, with the contraction of the diaphragm muscle. This is known as negative pressure breathing. Normally, the diaphragm's relaxed position recoils (decreasing the thoracic volume) whereas in the contracted position it is pulled downwards (increasing the thoracic volume). This process works in conjunction with the intercostal muscles connected to the rib cage. Contraction of these muscles lifts the rib cage, thus aiding in increasing the thoracic volume. Relaxation of the diaphragm compresses the lungs, effectively decreasing their volume while increasing the pressure inside them. The intercostal muscles simultaneously relax, further decreasing the volume of the lungs. With a pathway to the mouth or nose clear, this increased pressure forces air out of the lungs. Conversely, contraction of the diaphragm increases the volume of the (partially empty) lungs, decreasing the pressure inside, which creates a partial vacuum. Environmental air then follows its pressure gradient down to fill the lungs.
In amphibians, the process used is positive pressure breathing. Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, enlarging it and drawing in air through the nostrils (which uses the same mechanics - pressure, volume, and diffusion - as a mammalian lung). With the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the oral cavity is forced up, which forces air down the trachea into the lungs.
At rest, breathing out, or exhaling, is a combination of passive and active processes powered by the elastic recoil of the alveoli, similar to a deflating balloon, and the contraction of the muscular body wall. The following organs are used in respiration: the mouth; the nose and nostrils; the pharynx; the larynx; the trachea; the bronchi and bronchioles; the lungs; the diaphragm; and the terminal branches of the respiratory tree, such as the alveoli.
Control of breathing
Main article: Control of respiration
Breathing is one of the few bodily functions which, within limits, can be controlled both consciously and sub-consciously.
Conscious control
Conscious control of breathing is common in many forms of meditation, specifically forms of yoga for example pranayama unlike anapana which is only awareness of breath. In swimming, cardio fitness, speech or vocal training, one learns to discipline one's breathing, initially consciously but later sub-consciously, for purposes other than life support. Human speech is also dependent on conscious breath control. Also breathing control is used in Buteyko method.
Unconscious control
Unconsciously, breathing is controlled by specialized centers in the brainstem, which automatically regulate the rate and depth of breathing depending on the body’s needs at any time. When carbon dioxide levels increase in the blood, it reacts with the water in blood, producing carbonic acid. Lactic acid produced by anaerobic exercise also lowers pH. The drop in the blood's pH stimulates chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies in the blood system to send nerve impulses to the respiration centre in the medulla oblongata and pons in the brain. These, in turn send nerve impulses through the phrenic and thoracic nerves to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles, increasing the rate of breathing. Even a slight difference in the blood's normal pH, 7.4, could cause death, so this is an important process.[citation needed]
This automatic control of respiration can be impaired in premature babies, or by drugs or disease.
Examples
For instance, while exercising, the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases due to increased cellular respiration by the muscles, which activates carotid and aortic bodies and the respiration center, which ultimately cause a higher rate of respiration.
During rest, the level of carbon dioxide is lower, so breathing rate is lower. This ensures an appropriate amount of oxygen is delivered to the muscles and other organs. It is important to reiterate that it is the buildup of carbon dioxide making the blood acidic that elicits the desperation for a breath much more than lack of oxygen.
Interaction
It is not possible for a healthy person to voluntarily stop breathing indefinitely. If we do not inhale, the level of carbon dioxide builds up in our blood, and we experience overwhelming air hunger. This irrepressible reflex is not surprising given that without breathing, the body's internal oxygen levels drop dangerously low within minutes, leading to permanent brain damage followed eventually by death. However, there have been instances where people have survived for as long as two hours without air; this is only possible when submerged in cold water, as this triggers the mammalian diving reflex [1] as well as putting the subject into a state of suspended animation.
If a healthy person were to voluntarily stop breathing (i.e. hold his or her breath) for a long enough amount of time, he or she would lose consciousness, and the body would resume breathing on its own. Because of this one cannot commit suicide with this method, unless one's breathing was also restricted by something else (e.g. water, see drowning)
Hyperventilating causes a drop in CO2 below normal levels, lowering blood and oxygen supply to vital organs due to CO2-induced vasoconstriction and suppressed Bohr effect. Voluntary hyperventilation can cause tissue oxygen levels to go to dangerously low levels leading to, for example, fainting due to brain hypoxia.
Breathing in the sick
Medical respiratory data (see the table below) suggest that sick people breathe about 2-3 times more air at rest than the medical norm.
Condition Minute ventilation (± standard deviation) Number of patients Reference
Normal breathing 6 l/min None Medical textbooks: [2] [3] [4] [5]
Asthma 12 l/min 101 [6]
Asthma 15 l/min 8 [7]
Asthma 14.1 (±5.7) l/min 39 [8]
Heart disease 14 (±4) l/min 88 [9]
Heart disease 12.2 (±3.3) l/min 132 [10]
Heart disease 16 (±2) l/min 11 [11]
Heart disease 15 (±4) l/min 22 [12]
Diabetes 10-20 l/min 28 [13]
Diabetes 12-17 l/min 26 [14]
Cystic fibrosis 11-14 l/min 6 [15]
Cystic fibrosis 13 (±1.8) l/min 10 [16]
COPD 12.2 (±1.9) l/min 10 [17]
Liver cirrhosis 11-18 l/min 24 [18]
Hyperthyroidism 14.9 (±0.6) l/min 42 [19]
Epilepsy 12.8 l/min 12 [20]
(Source: http://www.normalbreathing.com/ ) There are many more medical studies that found 100% prevalence of chronic hyperventilation in patients with various chronic diseases.
Relationship to death
Most organisms breathe to avoid death by asphyxiation. Breath is sometimes used as a metaphor for life itself, and often "last breath" is the most obvious sign that death has occurred. The association between the end of life and breathing is not absolute, as scientists have discovered the brain/mind can continue to function for a few minutes without the continuation of oxygen and/or its properties. Though thought to "restart" breathing, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) only circulates blood through the body.
Breathing in gas
Components
Oxygen is the essential component of all breathing gases.
The air we inhale is roughly 78% by volume nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.96% argon and 0.04% carbon dioxide, helium, water, and other gases. In addition to air, underwater divers often breathe oxygen-rich or helium-rich gas mixes. Oxygen and analgesic gases are sometimes given to patients under medical care. The atmosphere in space suits is pure oxygen. Also our reliance on this relatively small amount of oxygen can cause over activity or euphoria in pure or oxygen rich environments.
The permanent gases in gas we exhale are roughly 4% to 5% carbon dioxide and 4% to 5% less oxygen than was inhaled. Additionally vapors and trace gases are present: 5% water vapor, several parts per million (ppm) of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, 1 part per million (ppm) of ammonia and less than 1 ppm of acetone, methanol, ethanol (unless ethanol has been ingested, in which case much higher concentrations would occur in the breath, cf. Breathalyzer) and other volatile organic compounds. The exact amount of exhaled oxygen and carbon dioxide varies according to the fitness, energy expenditure and diet of that particular person.
Air pressure
Atmospheric air at altitude is at a lower pressure than at sea level due to the lesser weight of the air above. This lower pressure can lead to altitude sickness, or hypoxia.
Gases breathed underwater are at higher pressure than at sea level due to the added weight of water. This can lead to nitrogen narcosis, oxygen toxicity, or decompression sickness.
Cultural significance
In Tai Chi Chuan, aerobic training is combined with breathing to exercise the diaphragm muscles, and to train effective posture, which both make better use of the body's energy. In music, breath is used to play wind instruments and many aerophones. Laughter, physically, is simply repeated sharp breaths. Hiccups and yawns are other breath-related phenomena.
Ancients commonly linked the breath to a life force. The Hebrew Bible refers to God breathing the breath of life into clay to make Adam a living soul (nephesh). It also refers to the breath as returning to God when a mortal dies. The terms "spirit," "qi," and "psyche"[21] are related to the concept of breath.
See also
Apnea (suspension of breathing)
Diaphragmatic breathing
Kussmaul breathing
Agonal breathing
Cheyne-Stokes respiration
Biot's respiration
Mouth breathing
Nose breathing
Pneuma
Prana
Qi
Respiratory rate
Spirit
Halitosis
Liquid breathing
Carbon cycle
References
^ Ramey CA, Ramey DN, Hayward JS. Dive response of children in relation to cold-water near drowning. J Appl Physiol 2001;62(2):665-8.Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002).Adapted from Victoria E. McMillan (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001). See it cited here
^ Ganong WF, Review of medical physiology, 15-th ed., 1995, Prentice Hall Int., London.
^ Guyton AC, Physiology of the human body, 6-th ed., 1984, Suanders College Publ., Philadelphia.
^ McArdle W.D., Katch F.I., Katch V.L., Essentials of exercise physiology (2-nd edition); Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, London 2000.
^ Straub NC, Section V, The Respiratory System, in Physiology, eds. RM Berne & MN Levy, 4-th edition, Mosby, St. Louis, 1998.
^ McFadden ER & Lyons HA, Arterial-blood gases in asthma, The New Engl J of Med 1968 May 9, 278 (19): 1027-1032.
^ Johnson BD, Scanlon PD, Beck KC, Regulation of ventilatory capacity during exercise in asthmatics, J Appl Physiol. 1995 Sep; 79(3): 892-901.
^ Bowler SD, Green A, Mitchell CA, Buteyko breathing techniques in asthma: a blinded randomised controlled trial, Med J of Australia 1998; 169: 575-578.
^ Clark AL, Chua TP, Coats AJ, Anatomical dead space, ventilatory pattern, and exercise capacity in chronic heart failure, Br Heart J 1995 Oct; 74(4): 377-380.
^ Fanfulla F, Mortara , Maestri R, Pinna GD, Bruschi C, Cobelli F, Rampulla C, The development of hyperventilation in patients with chronic heart failure and Cheyne-Stokes respiration, Chest 1998; 114; p. 1083-1090.
^ Johnson BD, Beck KC, Olson LJ, O'Malley KA, Allison TG, Squires RW, Gau GT, Ventilatory constraints during exercise in patients with chronic heart failure, Chest 2000 Feb; 117(2): 321-332.
^ Dimopoulou I, Tsintzas OK, Alivizatos PA, Tzelepis GE, Pattern of breathing during progressive exercise in chronic heart failure, Int J Cardiol. 2001 Dec; 81(2-3): 117-121.
^ Tantucci C, Scionti L, Bottini P, Dottorini ML, Puxeddu E, Casucci G, Sorbini CA, Influence of autonomic neuropathy of different severities on the hypercapnic drive to breathing in diabetic patients, Chest. 1997 Jul; 112(1): 145-153.
^ Bottini P, Dottorini ML, M. Cordoni MC, Casucci G, Tantucci C, Sleep-disordered breathing in nonobese diabetic subjects with autonomic neuropathy, Eur Respir J 2003; 22: p. 654–660.
^ Tepper RS, Skatrud B, Dempsey JA, Ventilation and oxygenation changes during sleep in cystic fibrosis, Chest 1983; 84; p. 388-393.
^ Bell SC, Saunders MJ, Elborn JS, Shale DJ, Resting energy expenditure and oxygen cost of breathing in patients with cystic fibrosis, Thorax 1996 Feb; 51(2): 126-131.
^ Sinderby C, Spahija J, Beck J, Kaminski D, Yan S, Comtois N, Sliwinski P, Diaphragm activation during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 Jun; 163(7): 1637-1641.
^ Epstein SK, Zilberberg MD; Facoby C, Ciubotaru RL, Kaplan LM, Response to symptom-limited exercise in patients with the hepatopulmonary syndrome, Chest 1998; 114; p. 736-741.
^ Kahaly GJ, Nieswandt J, Wagner S, Schlegel J, Mohr-Kahaly S, Hommel G, Ineffective cardiorespiratory function in hyperthyroidism, J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998 Nov; 83(11): 4075-4078.
^ Esquivel E, Chaussain M, Plouin P, Ponsot G, Arthuis M, Physical exercise and voluntary hyperventilation in childhood absence epilepsy, Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1991 Aug; 79(2): 127-132.
Source: Wikipedia
Tuesday, January 05, 2010
CHARACTER ANALYSIS by Dr. Wilhelm Reich
This third edition of Reich's classic study of human character not only presents the essential first steps, taken between 1928 and 1934, from psychoanalysis to the bioenergetic study of the emotions, but adds three later papers: "The Emotional Plague," "The Expressive Language of The Living in Orgone Therapy," and "The Schizophrenic Split," an extensive case history of a paranoid schizophrenic. This case history will convince the reader that the organismic orgone energy is the physical reality that corresponds to the merely psychological concept of "psychic energy." Translated by Vincent R. Carfagno
Source: http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/books.html
Source: http://www.wilhelmreichmuseum.org/books.html
Tuesday, December 29, 2009
Sunday, December 27, 2009
MUDANÇAS E TRANSPORTE DE CARGA – 20 EUROS POR HORA – LISBOA E GRANDE LISBOA
Friday, December 25, 2009
Route 66 The Road Movie
http://www.documentary-film.net/search/watch.php?&ref=108
Type of Video: Film
Genre: Entertainment
Length: 90 Minutes
Description: 3 Guys go to America to make a road movie, they have little money and spend most of it on a donkey of a car, and that's when all the fun begins. This film gives you a very rare insight into a culture that we think we understand but really don't. Hollywood's perspective is not portrayed, rather we see the generosity and initiative that American's show towards 3 German aliens as they cross a mountain of a country with little more than faith in humanity. The film then blends hypnotic forays of scenery together into an epic worthy of a Hollywood production.
Type of Video: Film
Genre: Entertainment
Length: 90 Minutes
Description: 3 Guys go to America to make a road movie, they have little money and spend most of it on a donkey of a car, and that's when all the fun begins. This film gives you a very rare insight into a culture that we think we understand but really don't. Hollywood's perspective is not portrayed, rather we see the generosity and initiative that American's show towards 3 German aliens as they cross a mountain of a country with little more than faith in humanity. The film then blends hypnotic forays of scenery together into an epic worthy of a Hollywood production.
Thursday, December 24, 2009
Diário de Laurie Anderson 1
Mais um balanço matinal, pôr nesta hora as sensações em ordem até chegar o sono. Quando penso, deixo tudo preso por cordões finíssimos e escrevo antes que tudo se limite a nós.
A noite começou tarde como as outras, uma festa igual onde estive, um estúdio abafado em tequilla e ritmos tropicais, as caras do costume e outras mais jovens em grande entusiasmo. Excitam-me sempre, o colorido, as roupas estampadas no fim do mundo com flores agressivas. Bebi até aquele ponto certo, o suficiente para me desorientar e me sentir simpática. Nestes momentos falo sempre demais. Acabei por amanhecer com um amigo antigo daqueles com quem se inventa enquanto se fala, sem direcção alguma.
Abrimos cicatrizes, comparámos a virgindade das épocas sempre iguais mas cada vez mais espessas.
Dantes o belo era o belo, existiam padrões e os poetas viviam entre a súplica e os êxtases de verde e de céu. Agora não se pode ser nada que tenha nome, já não existem bálsamos, mas também é um prazer dar vida nova à palavra, movimentarmo-nos no meio de equações plásticas.
Tenho necessidade de algo que me justifique continuamente. A tranquilidade habita apenas o meu núcleo, tudo o resto é ventania, excesso, paixões inacabadas. Adoro estas conversas de fim de noite arrastadas pela cauda do cansaço.
Ele adormeceu como um pedregulho que cai num poço, eu saí, pé ante pé, depois de o beijar. Não deu por nada. Na rua estava frio, até chegar a casa senti-me como a sombra de um cão abandonado.
L.A.
A noite começou tarde como as outras, uma festa igual onde estive, um estúdio abafado em tequilla e ritmos tropicais, as caras do costume e outras mais jovens em grande entusiasmo. Excitam-me sempre, o colorido, as roupas estampadas no fim do mundo com flores agressivas. Bebi até aquele ponto certo, o suficiente para me desorientar e me sentir simpática. Nestes momentos falo sempre demais. Acabei por amanhecer com um amigo antigo daqueles com quem se inventa enquanto se fala, sem direcção alguma.
Abrimos cicatrizes, comparámos a virgindade das épocas sempre iguais mas cada vez mais espessas.
Dantes o belo era o belo, existiam padrões e os poetas viviam entre a súplica e os êxtases de verde e de céu. Agora não se pode ser nada que tenha nome, já não existem bálsamos, mas também é um prazer dar vida nova à palavra, movimentarmo-nos no meio de equações plásticas.
Tenho necessidade de algo que me justifique continuamente. A tranquilidade habita apenas o meu núcleo, tudo o resto é ventania, excesso, paixões inacabadas. Adoro estas conversas de fim de noite arrastadas pela cauda do cansaço.
Ele adormeceu como um pedregulho que cai num poço, eu saí, pé ante pé, depois de o beijar. Não deu por nada. Na rua estava frio, até chegar a casa senti-me como a sombra de um cão abandonado.
L.A.
Diário de Laurie Anderson 2
“Enquanto espero o meu almoço apressado, aproveito para me desembaraçar destas linhas, há muito que não pegava na caneta (pausa para as vitaminas).
Hoje acordei com uma disposição anormal. Levantei-me cedo e sentia-me bem, como que depois de algumas horas de sauna.
Colei o nariz ao vidro, estação de paixões e alergias, pela primeira vez este ano, senti a Primavera. Não que tivesse dormido bem, de facto passei o tempo todo às voltas (outra vez a porcaria dos excitantes) depois de noites como esta é quando me sinto melhor, é como saísse de um turbilhão esclarecedor.
6 horas de sono, o sonho e o barulho – lá fora. Passo de um estado ao outro, reviro-me e de manhã acordo com a cara de ontem e mais um palmo de olheiras. Por falar nisso, hoje o espelho revelou-me umas quantas verdades, mostrou-me nua como eu gosto, quase transparente. O espelho, é a única coisa com que me dou bem de manhã, não me aborrece, não me pergunta nada. Fico em frente dele muito tempo às vezes especada-fascinada. Só nos separamos quando apago as nódoas, quando tapo as brechas e os becos desagradáveis.
Sinto-me sempre feia de manhã.
Depois de noites como esta é quando estou melhor, um bocado cinzenta as rugas que se alongam. Adoro este rosto estampado n’outro mundo.
Maquilhei o personagem para hoje, enfiei a camisola de riscas azul e branca. Marinheiro ressacado.
Lá fora, apetecia-me andar aos saltos e andei. Tinha sido tudo lavado…
A fumarada, a distorção dos rostos, o tédio, tudo brilhava como metal polido. Que sensação!
Apetecia-me respirar a rua em plenos pulmões, tirar proveito da desordem. Sentia-me no meio, pertencia às esquinas
às montras
às sarjetas
Esta cidade é um cubo de arestas cinzentas
é a linha cinzenta
15-4-85 L.A.
Hoje acordei com uma disposição anormal. Levantei-me cedo e sentia-me bem, como que depois de algumas horas de sauna.
Colei o nariz ao vidro, estação de paixões e alergias, pela primeira vez este ano, senti a Primavera. Não que tivesse dormido bem, de facto passei o tempo todo às voltas (outra vez a porcaria dos excitantes) depois de noites como esta é quando me sinto melhor, é como saísse de um turbilhão esclarecedor.
6 horas de sono, o sonho e o barulho – lá fora. Passo de um estado ao outro, reviro-me e de manhã acordo com a cara de ontem e mais um palmo de olheiras. Por falar nisso, hoje o espelho revelou-me umas quantas verdades, mostrou-me nua como eu gosto, quase transparente. O espelho, é a única coisa com que me dou bem de manhã, não me aborrece, não me pergunta nada. Fico em frente dele muito tempo às vezes especada-fascinada. Só nos separamos quando apago as nódoas, quando tapo as brechas e os becos desagradáveis.
Sinto-me sempre feia de manhã.
Depois de noites como esta é quando estou melhor, um bocado cinzenta as rugas que se alongam. Adoro este rosto estampado n’outro mundo.
Maquilhei o personagem para hoje, enfiei a camisola de riscas azul e branca. Marinheiro ressacado.
Lá fora, apetecia-me andar aos saltos e andei. Tinha sido tudo lavado…
A fumarada, a distorção dos rostos, o tédio, tudo brilhava como metal polido. Que sensação!
Apetecia-me respirar a rua em plenos pulmões, tirar proveito da desordem. Sentia-me no meio, pertencia às esquinas
às montras
às sarjetas
Esta cidade é um cubo de arestas cinzentas
é a linha cinzenta
15-4-85 L.A.
Tuesday, December 22, 2009
Edward Gytrash (Eduardo Alexandre Pinto) and Sophie Seele (Zofia Dambek) in Inside you and far
Edward’s lips were the element that fade for the gloomy look that holds Sophie’s breathe and when he sees a true spirit out from across the darkest shadow, the moon rises for the way to pass with a glove that traces the cold and haunts the beauty of her nature in a good way, being the clothes that they take out to swim. Yes, with every first electric sound they are much more than skin and bone, they seek for the healthy roots in each step to stop the scientific sun from the killing from the friends and humans we love and have, cause they belong to the non-stop gracefully people with virtual top secrets, smashing the government with our energy on the way of moving the psychologically strength coming from a powerful story in the true reality that is close in sensibility for the union of the open eyes, cause me, dear Sophie, we can make the difference if humankind is having fond of the brave people that is telling that revolution is the true and no apology for cheap riots, so come, feel, so come, sacred love, my life energy trusts on your soul, like the rainbow warrior on the dirty waters, cause all of us can be released from the pain and I give these words for whoever thinks his/her life, behind every second after all the time to have faith in anarchy… and in the whishing of some knowledge there is a sharpened song that goes for the green valleys so fresh there in that colorful dress just like a never knowing about what could be the love from the top roof in the head, when it shouts for your name, all the speech turns blue again cause the secret sorrow of a morning tear is on the dream thrown into the land of emptiness, that is a sad light but the laugh will strike again on you without your confused and lonely fight, it’s us all, so feel free to invoice my heart and I will write you a song, in honor of our garden flirts, swinging a dozen of kisses in your black trousers, just when the rain took us into your car and after the travel you belly danced to me on my room, it was a safe shore for both, so keep my eyes clean, dear soul, making of this a certain straight stage of a convertible name, meaning you heating up my body by the dream academy where I scratch your body.
Monday, December 21, 2009
Latin
Latin (lingua lătīna, pronounced [laˈtiːna]) is an Italic language[3] originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. With the Roman conquest, Latin was spread to countries around the Mediterranean, including a large part of Europe. Romance languages, such as Catalan, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish are descended from Latin,[4] while many others, especially European languages, have inherited and acquired much of their vocabulary from it. It was the international language of science and scholarship in central and western Europe until the 17th century, when it was gradually replaced by vernacular languages.
Contents [hide]
1 Legacy
2 History of Latin
2.1 Old, early or archaic Latin
2.2 Classical Latin
2.3 Late Latin
2.4 Vulgar Latin
2.5 Medieval Latin
2.6 Renaissance Latin
3 Language characteristics
3.1 Pronunciation
3.2 Orthography
3.3 Grammar
3.3.1 Nouns
3.3.2 Verbs
4 Contemporary use
5 Instruction in Latin
6 See also
6.1 Language
6.2 Culture
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
[edit] Legacy
The Latin heritage has been delivered in these broad genres:
Inscriptions
Latin literature
Latin words and concepts in modern languages and scientific terminology
An extensive tradition of instruction in the Latin language, including grammars and dictionaries
Most inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed upon, monumental, multi-volume series termed the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary but the format is approximately the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenience and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. In addition to the approximately 180,000 known inscriptions the works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library by Harvard University Press.
For more details on this topic, see Latin literature.
There has also been a major Latin influence in English. In the medieval period, much of this borrowing occurred through ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century, or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some were so useful that they survived. Imbibe and extrapolate are inkhorn terms created from Latin words. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are simply adapted Latin forms, in a large number of cases adapted by way of Old French.
[edit] History of Latin
Main article: History of Latin
Latin has been divided into historical phases, each of which is distinguished by minor differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology and syntax. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church in all historical phases from Late Latin on.
[edit] Old, early or archaic Latin
Main article: Old Latin
The earliest known is Old Latin, a phase of the early and middle Roman republic attested in inscriptions and the earliest surviving Latin works of literature.
[edit] Classical Latin
Main article: Classical Latin
Old Latin was followed in the late republic and empire by Classical Latin, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, and was taught in the schools of grammar and rhetoric. The concepts of today's instructional grammars originated in these schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy to maintain and perpetuate the classical language.[5][6]
[edit] Late Latin
Main article: Late Latin
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, literary Latin survived as the lingua franca of educated classes in the West. The population of the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as Byzantine, used a form of Greek that evolved into modern Greek, even though the administration assumed names and titles that had come from Latin. The eastern empire survived until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Vulgar Latin
Main article: Vulgar Latin
Philological analysis of Old Latin works, such as the plays of Plautus, which contain dialogue purporting to be the speech of the common people, indicates that contemporaneous with the literary and official language was a spoken language, which has from ancient times been called Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgi in Cicero), the language of the vulgus or "common people." Since the vulgus spoke — but did not write their language — it can only be known through words and phrases cited by classical authors or in inscriptions.[7]
As vulgar Latin was not under the control or encouragement of the schools of rhetoric, there is no reason to expect any uniformity of speech either diachronically or geographically. Just the opposite must have been true: European populations learning Latin developed their own dialects of the language.[8] This is the situation that prevailed when the Migration Period, ca. 300-700 AD, brought an end to the unity and peace of the Roman world and removed the stabilizing influence of its institutions on the language. A post-classical phase of Latin appeared, Late Latin, in which the spoken forms reappeared, and which is regionalized. Starting about the 5th or 6th centuries, Late Latin contains minor features that are germinal to the development of the Romance languages.
One of the tests as to whether a given Latin feature or usage was in the spoken language is to compare its reflex in a Romance language with the equivalent structure in classical Latin. If it appeared in the Romance language but was not preferred in classical Latin, then it passes the test as being vulgar Latin. For example, grammatical case in nouns is present in classical Latin but not in the Romance languages, excluding Romanian. One might conclude that case endings in regions other than Romania were already wholly or partly missing in the spoken language even while being insisted upon in the written. (Even in Romanian there are as many case endings for nouns as there are for pronouns in the other languages; cf. Romanian endings i, lor with the Italian pronouns gli, loro). Also, much of the vocabulary that went into the Romance languages came from Vulgar Latin rather than classical. The following examples follow the formula, classical Latin word/vulgar Latin word/ Italian word/ French word: ignis/focus/fuoco/feu, equus/caballus/cavallo/cheval, loquor/parabolare/parlare/parler, pulcher/bellus/bello/bel (or belle).[9] In each case French does not use the classical Latin word. The words actually used: focus, caballus, etc., must have been in the Vulgar Latin vocabulary.
The expansion of the Roman Empire had spread Latin throughout Europe. Vulgar Latin began to diverge into various dialects and many of these into distinct Romance languages by the 9th century at very latest, when the earliest known writings appeared. The languages must already have been in place. These were, for many centuries, only oral languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was still the official language of Portugal until 1296, when Portuguese replaced it. Portuguese had already developed and was in use under the umbrella of the vulgar language.
[edit] Medieval Latin
Main article: Medieval Latin
The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from 1407The term Medieval Latin refers to the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance Languages; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful as a means of international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.
Cut loose from its corrective spoken base and severed from the vanished institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, mediaeval Latin lost the precise knowledge of correctness; for example, suus ("his/her own") and eius ("his/her") are used interchangeably, an error that would have been swiftly corrected in the schools of classical Rome. In classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Mediaeval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[10] Furthermore the meanings of many words have changed and new vocabulary has been introduced from the vernacular.
While these minor changes are not enough to impair comprehension of the language, they introduce a certain flexibility not in it previously. The style of each individual author is characterized by his own uses of classically incorrect Latin to such a degree that he can be identified just by reading his Latin. In that sense mediaeval Latin is a collection of individual Latins united loosely by the main structures of the language. Some are more classical, others less so.[10] As the majority of these writers were influential members of the Christian church: bishops, monks, philosophers, etc., the term Ecclesiastical Latin does not accurately apply; the majority were ecclesiastical by occupation but there was no uniform language of the church; that was a product of the Renaissance. Late Latin is sometimes classified as mediaeval, sometimes not. Certainly many of the individual Latins were influenced by the vernaculars of their authors.
[edit] Renaissance Latin
Main article: Renaissance Latin
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could. It was they who introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts, and they who attempted to restore Latin to what it had been. They corrected mediaeval Latin out of existence no later than the 15th century and replaced it with more formally correct versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, through scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.
[edit] Language characteristics
Throughout its entire history the Latin language retained the same major characteristics and is on that account classified as one language. These characteristics are reflected best in the classical Latin period and are introduced in this article rather than in the Classical Latin article.
Over its 2500-3000 year history the language varied considerably in minor ways. In general, a native speaker in one historical period understood the Latin of another only with difficulty or not at all. Persons educated in Latin, however, were able through study to broaden their horizons to two or more periods, an event that always commanded the respect of their peers. Queen Elizabeth I of England and her close relatives, for example, who received the best classical education from tutors hired for the purpose from Oxford University, were respected at home and abroad for their command of Latin and ancient Greek. Elizabeth could when required slip easily from French or Spanish into Latin for the convenience of foreign dignitaries.
[edit] Pronunciation
Main article: Latin spelling and pronunciation
Pronounciation of Latin by the Romans in ancient times can be reconstructed from evidence in the modern Romance languages, transliteration to and from Greek, and the statements of ancient authors themselves.
Latin spelling seems to have been a fairly close representation of the pronunciation, but some distinctions did not show up in the spelling. In particular all vowels could be either long or short, the letter N before G, or X (and probably G before N) represented IPA /ŋ/ (like English ng in sing) and the letters I and V each functioned sometimes as a vowel and sometimes as a consonant. In modern texts, V is generally printed as U / u when a vowel and V / v when a consonant. (Some newer editions, such as the Oxford Latin Dictionary, use V for upper case and u for lower case.) Less commonly, I is printed as I / i when a vowel and J / j when a consonant.
Most of the letters are pronounced the same as in English, but note the following:
Consonants:
c = /k/ (never "soft c")
g = /g/ (never "soft g")
t = /t/ (never as in English nation)
v (consonantal u) = /w/
j (consonantal i) = /j/ (like English y in you)
Vowels:
a = /a/ when short and /aː/ when long.
e = /ɛ/ (as in pet) when short and /eː/ (somewhat as in English they) when long.
i = /ɪ/ (as in pin) when short and /iː/ (as in machine) when long
o = /ɔ/ (as in British English got) when short and /oː/ (somewhat as in holy) when long.
u = /ʊ/ (as in put) when short and /uː/ (as in true) when long.
[edit] Orthography
Main article: Latin alphabet
The Duenos inscription, from the 6th century BC, is the earliest known Old Latin text.To write Latin, the Romans used the Latin alphabet, derived from the Old Italic alphabet, which itself was derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet flourishes today as the writing system for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic (including English), and some Slavic (such as Polish) languages, among others.
The ancient Romans did not use punctuation; macrons (although they did use apices to distinguish between long and short vowels); the letters j, u or w; lowercase letters (although they did have a cursive script); or interword spacing (though dots were occasionally placed between words that would otherwise be difficult to distinguish). So, a sentence originally written as:
LVGETEOVENERESCVPIDINESQVE
would be rendered in a modern edition as
Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque
or with macrons
Lūgēte, Ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque.
and translated as
Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids
A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tabletsThe Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Curiously enough, most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, though spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.
[edit] Grammar
It has been suggested that Latin numbers: 1-10 be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
Main article: Latin grammar
Latin is a synthetic, fusional language: affixes (often suffixes, which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns—a process called declension. Affixes are attached to fixed stems of verbs, as well, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect—a process called conjugation.
[edit] Nouns
Main article: Latin declension
There are six main Latin noun cases. These play a major part in determining a noun's syntactic role in the sentence, so word order is not as important in Latin as it is in some other languages, such as English. Because of noun cases, words can often be moved around in a sentence without significantly altering its meaning, though the emphasis will have been altered. The cases, with their most important uses, are these:
Nominative: used when the noun is the subject of the sentence or phrase, or when functioning as a predicative of the subject. The thing or person acting (e.g., The girl ran. Puella cucurrit.)
Genitive: used when the noun is the possessor of an object (e.g., "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"—in both of these cases, the word man would be in the genitive case when translated into Latin). Also indicates material of which something greater is made (e.g., "a group of people"; "a number of gifts"—people and gifts would be in the genitive case). Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives too. (e.g., The cup is full of wine. Poculum plenum vini est. The master of the slave had beaten him. Dominus servi eum verberaverat.)
Dative: used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if used as agent, reference, or even possessor. (e.g., The merchant hands over the stola to the woman. Mercator feminae stolam tradit.)
Accusative: used when the noun is the direct object of the sentence/phrase, with certain prepositions, or as the subject of an infinitive. The thing or person having something done to them. (e.g., The slave woman carries the wine. Ancilla vinum portat.)
Ablative: used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent, or instrument, or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial.
Vocative: used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is the same as the nominative except for second declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e or if it ends in -ius (such as filius) then the ending is just -i (fili) (as distinct from the plural nominative (filii). (e.g., "Master!" shouted the slave. "Domine!" servus clamavit.)
There is also a seventh case, called the Locative case, used to indicate a location and services (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). This is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities, small towns, and small islands, along with a few common nouns. In the first and second declension singular, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural, and in the other declensions, it coincides with the dative and ablative (Athenae becomes Athenis, "at Athens").
Latin lacks definite and indefinite articles; thus puer currit can mean either "the boy runs" or "a boy runs".
[edit] Verbs
Main article: Latin conjugation
Verbs in Latin are usually identified by four main conjugations, groups of verbs with similarly inflected forms. The first conjugation is typified by active infinitive forms ending in -āre, the second by active infinitives ending in -ēre, the third by infinitives ending in -ere, and the fourth by active infinitives ending in -īre. However, there are exceptions to these rules. Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the -iō verbs, which behave somewhat like the 4th conjugation. There are five general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect and pluperfect), three grammatical moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second, and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive), and a few aspects. Verbs are described by four principal parts:
The first principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, present tense, indicative mood, active voice form of the verb (or passive voice for verbs lacking an active voice).
The second principal part is the present infinitive active (or passive for verbs lacking an active) form.
The third principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, perfect indicative active (or passive when there is no active) form.
The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular, perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show either one gender of the participle, or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine, and -um for neuter). It can also be the future participle when the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if only showing one gender, tend to show the masculine; however, many older dictionaries will instead show the neuter. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, although strictly in Latin these can be made passive if used impersonally.
[edit] Contemporary use
Main article: Contemporary Latin
The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman empire.Latin lives in the form of Ecclesiastical Latin used for edicts and papal bulls issued by the Catholic Church, and in the form of a sparse sprinkling of scientific or social articles written in it, as well as in numerous Latin clubs. Latin vocabulary is used in science, academia, and law. Classical Latin is taught in many schools often combined with Greek in the study of Classics, though its role has diminished since the early 20th century. The Latin alphabet, together with its modern variants such as the English, Spanish and French alphabets, is the most widely used alphabet in the world. Terminology deriving from Latin words and concepts is widely used, among other fields, in philosophy, medicine, biology, and law, in terms and abbreviations such as subpoena duces tecum, q.i.d. (quater in die: "four times a day"), and inter alia (among other things). These Latin terms are used in isolation, as technical terms. In scientific names for organisms, Latin is typically the language of choice, followed by Greek.
The largest organization that still uses Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Roman Catholic Church (particularly in the Latin Rite). The Tridentine Mass uses Latin, although the Mass of Paul VI is usually said in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, particularly in the Vatican. Indeed, Latin is still the official standard language of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the Second Vatican Council merely authorized that the liturgical books be translated and optionally used in the vernacular languages. Latin is the official language of the Holy See and the Vatican City-State. The Vatican City is also home to the only ATM where instructions are given in Latin.[11].
Some films of relevant ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for purposes of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogues are used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/TV series as the Exorcist and Lost (Jughead). Subtitles are usually employed for the benefit of audiences who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics.
Many organizations today have Latin mottos, such as "Semper Paratus" (always ready), the motto of the United States Coast Guard, and "Semper fidelis" (always faithful), the motto of the United States Marine Corps. Several of the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Montani Semper Liberi" (Mountaineers are always free), the state motto of West Virginia, and "Esse Quam Videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina.
Latin grammar has been taught in most Italian schools since the 18th century: for example, in the Liceo classico and Liceo scientifico, Latin is still one of the primary subjects. Latin is taught in many schools and universities around the world as well.
[edit] Instruction in Latin
Main article: Instruction in Latin
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of GrazThe Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that modern living languages are taught, i.e., as a means of both spoken and written communication. Living Latin instruction is provided at the Vatican, and at some institutions in the U.S., such as the University of Kentucky. In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages this approach, and Latin language books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus have been published. In the United States, the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members) encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League encourages college students to continue their studies of the language.
Many international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua, which lays claim to a sizeable following, is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is a language created from Latin with its inflections dropped.
Latin translations of modern literature such as Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Olivia, Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, "Walter the Farting Dog", Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, and The Cat in the Hat are intended to bolster interest in the language.
Source: Wikipedia
Contents [hide]
1 Legacy
2 History of Latin
2.1 Old, early or archaic Latin
2.2 Classical Latin
2.3 Late Latin
2.4 Vulgar Latin
2.5 Medieval Latin
2.6 Renaissance Latin
3 Language characteristics
3.1 Pronunciation
3.2 Orthography
3.3 Grammar
3.3.1 Nouns
3.3.2 Verbs
4 Contemporary use
5 Instruction in Latin
6 See also
6.1 Language
6.2 Culture
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
[edit] Legacy
The Latin heritage has been delivered in these broad genres:
Inscriptions
Latin literature
Latin words and concepts in modern languages and scientific terminology
An extensive tradition of instruction in the Latin language, including grammars and dictionaries
Most inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed upon, monumental, multi-volume series termed the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary but the format is approximately the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenience and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. In addition to the approximately 180,000 known inscriptions the works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library by Harvard University Press.
For more details on this topic, see Latin literature.
There has also been a major Latin influence in English. In the medieval period, much of this borrowing occurred through ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century, or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some were so useful that they survived. Imbibe and extrapolate are inkhorn terms created from Latin words. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are simply adapted Latin forms, in a large number of cases adapted by way of Old French.
[edit] History of Latin
Main article: History of Latin
Latin has been divided into historical phases, each of which is distinguished by minor differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology and syntax. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church in all historical phases from Late Latin on.
[edit] Old, early or archaic Latin
Main article: Old Latin
The earliest known is Old Latin, a phase of the early and middle Roman republic attested in inscriptions and the earliest surviving Latin works of literature.
[edit] Classical Latin
Main article: Classical Latin
Old Latin was followed in the late republic and empire by Classical Latin, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, and was taught in the schools of grammar and rhetoric. The concepts of today's instructional grammars originated in these schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy to maintain and perpetuate the classical language.[5][6]
[edit] Late Latin
Main article: Late Latin
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, literary Latin survived as the lingua franca of educated classes in the West. The population of the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as Byzantine, used a form of Greek that evolved into modern Greek, even though the administration assumed names and titles that had come from Latin. The eastern empire survived until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Vulgar Latin
Main article: Vulgar Latin
Philological analysis of Old Latin works, such as the plays of Plautus, which contain dialogue purporting to be the speech of the common people, indicates that contemporaneous with the literary and official language was a spoken language, which has from ancient times been called Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgi in Cicero), the language of the vulgus or "common people." Since the vulgus spoke — but did not write their language — it can only be known through words and phrases cited by classical authors or in inscriptions.[7]
As vulgar Latin was not under the control or encouragement of the schools of rhetoric, there is no reason to expect any uniformity of speech either diachronically or geographically. Just the opposite must have been true: European populations learning Latin developed their own dialects of the language.[8] This is the situation that prevailed when the Migration Period, ca. 300-700 AD, brought an end to the unity and peace of the Roman world and removed the stabilizing influence of its institutions on the language. A post-classical phase of Latin appeared, Late Latin, in which the spoken forms reappeared, and which is regionalized. Starting about the 5th or 6th centuries, Late Latin contains minor features that are germinal to the development of the Romance languages.
One of the tests as to whether a given Latin feature or usage was in the spoken language is to compare its reflex in a Romance language with the equivalent structure in classical Latin. If it appeared in the Romance language but was not preferred in classical Latin, then it passes the test as being vulgar Latin. For example, grammatical case in nouns is present in classical Latin but not in the Romance languages, excluding Romanian. One might conclude that case endings in regions other than Romania were already wholly or partly missing in the spoken language even while being insisted upon in the written. (Even in Romanian there are as many case endings for nouns as there are for pronouns in the other languages; cf. Romanian endings i, lor with the Italian pronouns gli, loro). Also, much of the vocabulary that went into the Romance languages came from Vulgar Latin rather than classical. The following examples follow the formula, classical Latin word/vulgar Latin word/ Italian word/ French word: ignis/focus/fuoco/feu, equus/caballus/cavallo/cheval, loquor/parabolare/parlare/parler, pulcher/bellus/bello/bel (or belle).[9] In each case French does not use the classical Latin word. The words actually used: focus, caballus, etc., must have been in the Vulgar Latin vocabulary.
The expansion of the Roman Empire had spread Latin throughout Europe. Vulgar Latin began to diverge into various dialects and many of these into distinct Romance languages by the 9th century at very latest, when the earliest known writings appeared. The languages must already have been in place. These were, for many centuries, only oral languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was still the official language of Portugal until 1296, when Portuguese replaced it. Portuguese had already developed and was in use under the umbrella of the vulgar language.
[edit] Medieval Latin
Main article: Medieval Latin
The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from 1407The term Medieval Latin refers to the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance Languages; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful as a means of international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.
Cut loose from its corrective spoken base and severed from the vanished institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, mediaeval Latin lost the precise knowledge of correctness; for example, suus ("his/her own") and eius ("his/her") are used interchangeably, an error that would have been swiftly corrected in the schools of classical Rome. In classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Mediaeval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[10] Furthermore the meanings of many words have changed and new vocabulary has been introduced from the vernacular.
While these minor changes are not enough to impair comprehension of the language, they introduce a certain flexibility not in it previously. The style of each individual author is characterized by his own uses of classically incorrect Latin to such a degree that he can be identified just by reading his Latin. In that sense mediaeval Latin is a collection of individual Latins united loosely by the main structures of the language. Some are more classical, others less so.[10] As the majority of these writers were influential members of the Christian church: bishops, monks, philosophers, etc., the term Ecclesiastical Latin does not accurately apply; the majority were ecclesiastical by occupation but there was no uniform language of the church; that was a product of the Renaissance. Late Latin is sometimes classified as mediaeval, sometimes not. Certainly many of the individual Latins were influenced by the vernaculars of their authors.
[edit] Renaissance Latin
Main article: Renaissance Latin
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could. It was they who introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts, and they who attempted to restore Latin to what it had been. They corrected mediaeval Latin out of existence no later than the 15th century and replaced it with more formally correct versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, through scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.
[edit] Language characteristics
Throughout its entire history the Latin language retained the same major characteristics and is on that account classified as one language. These characteristics are reflected best in the classical Latin period and are introduced in this article rather than in the Classical Latin article.
Over its 2500-3000 year history the language varied considerably in minor ways. In general, a native speaker in one historical period understood the Latin of another only with difficulty or not at all. Persons educated in Latin, however, were able through study to broaden their horizons to two or more periods, an event that always commanded the respect of their peers. Queen Elizabeth I of England and her close relatives, for example, who received the best classical education from tutors hired for the purpose from Oxford University, were respected at home and abroad for their command of Latin and ancient Greek. Elizabeth could when required slip easily from French or Spanish into Latin for the convenience of foreign dignitaries.
[edit] Pronunciation
Main article: Latin spelling and pronunciation
Pronounciation of Latin by the Romans in ancient times can be reconstructed from evidence in the modern Romance languages, transliteration to and from Greek, and the statements of ancient authors themselves.
Latin spelling seems to have been a fairly close representation of the pronunciation, but some distinctions did not show up in the spelling. In particular all vowels could be either long or short, the letter N before G, or X (and probably G before N) represented IPA /ŋ/ (like English ng in sing) and the letters I and V each functioned sometimes as a vowel and sometimes as a consonant. In modern texts, V is generally printed as U / u when a vowel and V / v when a consonant. (Some newer editions, such as the Oxford Latin Dictionary, use V for upper case and u for lower case.) Less commonly, I is printed as I / i when a vowel and J / j when a consonant.
Most of the letters are pronounced the same as in English, but note the following:
Consonants:
c = /k/ (never "soft c")
g = /g/ (never "soft g")
t = /t/ (never as in English nation)
v (consonantal u) = /w/
j (consonantal i) = /j/ (like English y in you)
Vowels:
a = /a/ when short and /aː/ when long.
e = /ɛ/ (as in pet) when short and /eː/ (somewhat as in English they) when long.
i = /ɪ/ (as in pin) when short and /iː/ (as in machine) when long
o = /ɔ/ (as in British English got) when short and /oː/ (somewhat as in holy) when long.
u = /ʊ/ (as in put) when short and /uː/ (as in true) when long.
[edit] Orthography
Main article: Latin alphabet
The Duenos inscription, from the 6th century BC, is the earliest known Old Latin text.To write Latin, the Romans used the Latin alphabet, derived from the Old Italic alphabet, which itself was derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet flourishes today as the writing system for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic (including English), and some Slavic (such as Polish) languages, among others.
The ancient Romans did not use punctuation; macrons (although they did use apices to distinguish between long and short vowels); the letters j, u or w; lowercase letters (although they did have a cursive script); or interword spacing (though dots were occasionally placed between words that would otherwise be difficult to distinguish). So, a sentence originally written as:
LVGETEOVENERESCVPIDINESQVE
would be rendered in a modern edition as
Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque
or with macrons
Lūgēte, Ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque.
and translated as
Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids
A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tabletsThe Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Curiously enough, most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, though spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.
[edit] Grammar
It has been suggested that Latin numbers: 1-10 be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
Main article: Latin grammar
Latin is a synthetic, fusional language: affixes (often suffixes, which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns—a process called declension. Affixes are attached to fixed stems of verbs, as well, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect—a process called conjugation.
[edit] Nouns
Main article: Latin declension
There are six main Latin noun cases. These play a major part in determining a noun's syntactic role in the sentence, so word order is not as important in Latin as it is in some other languages, such as English. Because of noun cases, words can often be moved around in a sentence without significantly altering its meaning, though the emphasis will have been altered. The cases, with their most important uses, are these:
Nominative: used when the noun is the subject of the sentence or phrase, or when functioning as a predicative of the subject. The thing or person acting (e.g., The girl ran. Puella cucurrit.)
Genitive: used when the noun is the possessor of an object (e.g., "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"—in both of these cases, the word man would be in the genitive case when translated into Latin). Also indicates material of which something greater is made (e.g., "a group of people"; "a number of gifts"—people and gifts would be in the genitive case). Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives too. (e.g., The cup is full of wine. Poculum plenum vini est. The master of the slave had beaten him. Dominus servi eum verberaverat.)
Dative: used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if used as agent, reference, or even possessor. (e.g., The merchant hands over the stola to the woman. Mercator feminae stolam tradit.)
Accusative: used when the noun is the direct object of the sentence/phrase, with certain prepositions, or as the subject of an infinitive. The thing or person having something done to them. (e.g., The slave woman carries the wine. Ancilla vinum portat.)
Ablative: used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent, or instrument, or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial.
Vocative: used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is the same as the nominative except for second declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e or if it ends in -ius (such as filius) then the ending is just -i (fili) (as distinct from the plural nominative (filii). (e.g., "Master!" shouted the slave. "Domine!" servus clamavit.)
There is also a seventh case, called the Locative case, used to indicate a location and services (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). This is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities, small towns, and small islands, along with a few common nouns. In the first and second declension singular, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural, and in the other declensions, it coincides with the dative and ablative (Athenae becomes Athenis, "at Athens").
Latin lacks definite and indefinite articles; thus puer currit can mean either "the boy runs" or "a boy runs".
[edit] Verbs
Main article: Latin conjugation
Verbs in Latin are usually identified by four main conjugations, groups of verbs with similarly inflected forms. The first conjugation is typified by active infinitive forms ending in -āre, the second by active infinitives ending in -ēre, the third by infinitives ending in -ere, and the fourth by active infinitives ending in -īre. However, there are exceptions to these rules. Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the -iō verbs, which behave somewhat like the 4th conjugation. There are five general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect and pluperfect), three grammatical moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second, and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive), and a few aspects. Verbs are described by four principal parts:
The first principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, present tense, indicative mood, active voice form of the verb (or passive voice for verbs lacking an active voice).
The second principal part is the present infinitive active (or passive for verbs lacking an active) form.
The third principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, perfect indicative active (or passive when there is no active) form.
The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular, perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show either one gender of the participle, or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine, and -um for neuter). It can also be the future participle when the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if only showing one gender, tend to show the masculine; however, many older dictionaries will instead show the neuter. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, although strictly in Latin these can be made passive if used impersonally.
[edit] Contemporary use
Main article: Contemporary Latin
The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman empire.Latin lives in the form of Ecclesiastical Latin used for edicts and papal bulls issued by the Catholic Church, and in the form of a sparse sprinkling of scientific or social articles written in it, as well as in numerous Latin clubs. Latin vocabulary is used in science, academia, and law. Classical Latin is taught in many schools often combined with Greek in the study of Classics, though its role has diminished since the early 20th century. The Latin alphabet, together with its modern variants such as the English, Spanish and French alphabets, is the most widely used alphabet in the world. Terminology deriving from Latin words and concepts is widely used, among other fields, in philosophy, medicine, biology, and law, in terms and abbreviations such as subpoena duces tecum, q.i.d. (quater in die: "four times a day"), and inter alia (among other things). These Latin terms are used in isolation, as technical terms. In scientific names for organisms, Latin is typically the language of choice, followed by Greek.
The largest organization that still uses Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Roman Catholic Church (particularly in the Latin Rite). The Tridentine Mass uses Latin, although the Mass of Paul VI is usually said in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, particularly in the Vatican. Indeed, Latin is still the official standard language of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the Second Vatican Council merely authorized that the liturgical books be translated and optionally used in the vernacular languages. Latin is the official language of the Holy See and the Vatican City-State. The Vatican City is also home to the only ATM where instructions are given in Latin.[11].
Some films of relevant ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for purposes of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogues are used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/TV series as the Exorcist and Lost (Jughead). Subtitles are usually employed for the benefit of audiences who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics.
Many organizations today have Latin mottos, such as "Semper Paratus" (always ready), the motto of the United States Coast Guard, and "Semper fidelis" (always faithful), the motto of the United States Marine Corps. Several of the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Montani Semper Liberi" (Mountaineers are always free), the state motto of West Virginia, and "Esse Quam Videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina.
Latin grammar has been taught in most Italian schools since the 18th century: for example, in the Liceo classico and Liceo scientifico, Latin is still one of the primary subjects. Latin is taught in many schools and universities around the world as well.
[edit] Instruction in Latin
Main article: Instruction in Latin
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of GrazThe Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that modern living languages are taught, i.e., as a means of both spoken and written communication. Living Latin instruction is provided at the Vatican, and at some institutions in the U.S., such as the University of Kentucky. In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages this approach, and Latin language books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus have been published. In the United States, the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members) encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League encourages college students to continue their studies of the language.
Many international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua, which lays claim to a sizeable following, is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is a language created from Latin with its inflections dropped.
Latin translations of modern literature such as Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Olivia, Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, "Walter the Farting Dog", Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, and The Cat in the Hat are intended to bolster interest in the language.
Source: Wikipedia
Sunday, December 20, 2009
Censorship from Dom Quixote Publishers from the Wilhelm Reich books
People are afraid completely like being in silence, to be alone, to drink or eat alone; yesterday I dreamed that I was in a white brown valley thinking and when I find myself satisfied got up and look into other man thinking and asked him: ‘ how are you?’, the man said: ‘ why people are afraid to be alone?’ and I went away with respect, because few people in real life know me or respect me as an independent thinker that has no fear to be alone in silence but had always guided people for self freedom and to open the bottles of smoke, the peace of being like unique, like me and you in your emotional plague or your attacks which I accept or see them as a defense from deep wounds of a life time. There are no miracles, no gods, or myhts, there are thoughts, emotions, feelings and the untied true to yourself, so once in a life time this kind of bridge is a game but not the ultimate call of the unfair fight I’m in but I keep my self fit cause babes, I train everybody part of myself for you dear little man
Saturday, December 19, 2009
Sunday, December 13, 2009
In celebration of the life of Jake Drake-Brockman, Elizabeth Fraser is releasing the single, ‘Moses’
In celebration of the life of Jake Drake-Brockman, Elizabeth Fraser is releasing the single, ‘Moses’. A close personal friend of both Elizabeth and her partner and musical collaborator, Damon Reece (Spiritualized, Massive Attack, Echo & The Bunnymen, BOM), Jake was tragically killed in a motorcycle accident in September. Elizabeth and Damon feel that the passing of such a wonderful man and great friend cannot go unmarked. A pivotal member of Echo and The Bunnymen, BOM and The Hook ‘Em Boys and, latterly, a highly respected sound recordist for the BBC, Jake was a beautiful human being and adventurer who profoundly touched the lives of all who had the privilege to know him. A talented musician, a technical genius/blagger, a jack-of-all-trades and master of many, Jake was a vibrant reminder to us all of what it is to be alive. His lust for life, keen intellect and Dunkirk spirit were a beacon of light in a world that is rapidly fading into mediocrity and convenience. As unique and individual as the classic motorcycles he loved so much, Jake was the last of the Mohicans. The Earth is a duller planet without him. ‘Moses’ was written and performed by Jake, Elizabeth and Damon and is backed with two re-mixes: the first by Thighpaulsandra (Julian Cope, Spiritualized, Coil) and the second by Andy Jenks (previously
Source: http://elizabethfraser.bandcamp.com/
Source: http://elizabethfraser.bandcamp.com/
WHEN TRAITORS RULE, PATRIOTS ARE PARIAHS by Reb Culhane
Reb Culhane is the pseudonym of a 21 year old college student in Denver, Colorado.
Throughout the 20th century, voices that cut a little too close to the core of the New World Order, were silenced, slandered, and discredited. One such voice, was Father Charles Coughlin (1891-1979.) A Roman Catholic priest of Canadian birth, Coughlin pioneered use of the radio to reach vast numbers of people during the 1930s era of Roosevelt's New Deal. While his message was not without flaws, Father Coughlin spoke the truth in key areas which led to his consignment to the "wrong" side of history in official accounts.
Originally a strong supporter of the Wall Street puppet FDR, Coughlin said, "The New Deal is Christ's Deal" and "God is directing Franklin Roosevelt." However, he soon changed his mind. Coughlin became a staunch proponent of monetary reform and an early advocate of abolishing the Federal Reserve.
With the advent of Coughlin's radio program, he began to reach millions of people a week and by 1934 had become the most prominent Roman Catholic economic and political speaker. Roosevelt himself sent Frank Murphy and JFK's father Joseph P. Kennedy to try and "tone him down." Coughlin ignored them and began to denounce FDR as a puppet of Wall Street. Coughlin also began to support the Louisiana populist leader Huey Long, who was murdered by the Illuminati.
Father Coughlin was a major opponent of the twin Hegelian heads of the New World Order, monopolistic capitalism and communism. He declared in 1935 "I have dedicated my life to fight against the heinous rottenness of modern capitalism because it robs the laborer of this world's goods. But blow for blow I shall strike against Communism, because it robs us of the next world's happiness."
Indeed, Coughlin was by very nature anti-globalist and supported the America First Movement of which Charles Lindbergh was a prominent figure.
"Less care for internationalism and more concern for national prosperity" was a campaign slogan of Coughlin's organization, the National Union for Social Justice. Speaking like this brought the full scorn of the New World Order down on the outspoken Catholic priest.
SHUTDOWN
During its height, Coughlin's radio program was wildly popular, with listeners flooding his office with 80,000 letters a week. It is estimated that almost a third of the nation tuned in at the time. However, Coughlin's popularity gained him some powerful enemies. The Roman Catholic Church itself did not approve of him and the Vatican wanted him silenced. The Roosevelt administration was determined to shut down the "Radio Priest".
Eventually accomplished this by performing an end run around the 1st Amendment. The administration decided that freedom of speech did not apply to broadcasting because radio was a "limited national resource" and should be regulated as a "publicly owned commons." New regulations were put into place demanding that regular radio broadcasters obtain operating permits. Coughlin was denied a permit and forced off the air.
He attempted to work around this by purchasing air time, but this became incredibly costly and reduced his resources and ability to reach people. Coughlin then resigned himself to publishing editorials in his own newspaper, entitled Social Justice. The Roosevelt administration acted predictably and revoked his mailing privileges, rendering him impotent in sending the paper out to subscribers.
Upon this, his influence was crippled. In addition, the attack on Pearl Harbor and entrance into World War II turned public opinion against anti-interventionists like Coughlin and official government propaganda smeared them as "collaborating with the enemy."
Thus, Coughlin faded into obscurity, spending his retirement keeping a low profile and writing anti-communist pamphlets until his death in 1979. His church, the National Shrine of the Little Flower in Royal Oak, Michigan, still stands today and was declared a National Shrine by the United States Bishops Conference in 1998.
Modern history texts smear him as a demagogue and anti-Semite with fascist sympathies. This isn't surprising because the winners write history and the Illuminati has been the winner for quite some time now.
COUGHLIN'S FLAWS
While he was indeed a great voice of opposition against the New World Order, Father Coughlin did fall into the trap of describing it as a "Jewish conspiracy".
While he correctly identified Jewish central bankers such as Jacob Schiff as being behind the Russian Revolution and helped to expose the Protocols of Zion, he had a tendency to generalize the entire conspiracy as a Jewish plot. This led him to express a degree of sympathy for Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.
In this researcher's opinion, that was a mistake. While some Cabalistic Jews are involved in the New World Order, many Gentiles are involved as well, as Coughlin was surely aware of (i.e. Roosevelt). In addition, Hitler and Mussolini both were instruments of the same conspiracy and should not be admired, especially by a Christian like Coughlin. Speaking of a "Jewish conspiracy" severely discredited him and opened him to be smeared into obscurity with the charge of anti-Semitism.
CONCLUSION
Despite the above shortcomings, Father Charles Coughlin was a strong anti-NWO activist and showed steadfast courage and bravery in his crusade to expose those who run the Shadow government. He pointed to the power structure, the central bankers, and called to abolish their control center, the Federal Reserve. For this he should be commended and held as an example for all patriots who value God, Freedom, and Country.
Coughlin's story also brings with it a strain of pessimism, though. After all, if a man who once had the attention of a third of the nation could not effect change, what chance do we have of doing so today?
Throughout the 20th century, voices that cut a little too close to the core of the New World Order, were silenced, slandered, and discredited. One such voice, was Father Charles Coughlin (1891-1979.) A Roman Catholic priest of Canadian birth, Coughlin pioneered use of the radio to reach vast numbers of people during the 1930s era of Roosevelt's New Deal. While his message was not without flaws, Father Coughlin spoke the truth in key areas which led to his consignment to the "wrong" side of history in official accounts.
Originally a strong supporter of the Wall Street puppet FDR, Coughlin said, "The New Deal is Christ's Deal" and "God is directing Franklin Roosevelt." However, he soon changed his mind. Coughlin became a staunch proponent of monetary reform and an early advocate of abolishing the Federal Reserve.
With the advent of Coughlin's radio program, he began to reach millions of people a week and by 1934 had become the most prominent Roman Catholic economic and political speaker. Roosevelt himself sent Frank Murphy and JFK's father Joseph P. Kennedy to try and "tone him down." Coughlin ignored them and began to denounce FDR as a puppet of Wall Street. Coughlin also began to support the Louisiana populist leader Huey Long, who was murdered by the Illuminati.
Father Coughlin was a major opponent of the twin Hegelian heads of the New World Order, monopolistic capitalism and communism. He declared in 1935 "I have dedicated my life to fight against the heinous rottenness of modern capitalism because it robs the laborer of this world's goods. But blow for blow I shall strike against Communism, because it robs us of the next world's happiness."
Indeed, Coughlin was by very nature anti-globalist and supported the America First Movement of which Charles Lindbergh was a prominent figure.
"Less care for internationalism and more concern for national prosperity" was a campaign slogan of Coughlin's organization, the National Union for Social Justice. Speaking like this brought the full scorn of the New World Order down on the outspoken Catholic priest.
SHUTDOWN
During its height, Coughlin's radio program was wildly popular, with listeners flooding his office with 80,000 letters a week. It is estimated that almost a third of the nation tuned in at the time. However, Coughlin's popularity gained him some powerful enemies. The Roman Catholic Church itself did not approve of him and the Vatican wanted him silenced. The Roosevelt administration was determined to shut down the "Radio Priest".
Eventually accomplished this by performing an end run around the 1st Amendment. The administration decided that freedom of speech did not apply to broadcasting because radio was a "limited national resource" and should be regulated as a "publicly owned commons." New regulations were put into place demanding that regular radio broadcasters obtain operating permits. Coughlin was denied a permit and forced off the air.
He attempted to work around this by purchasing air time, but this became incredibly costly and reduced his resources and ability to reach people. Coughlin then resigned himself to publishing editorials in his own newspaper, entitled Social Justice. The Roosevelt administration acted predictably and revoked his mailing privileges, rendering him impotent in sending the paper out to subscribers.
Upon this, his influence was crippled. In addition, the attack on Pearl Harbor and entrance into World War II turned public opinion against anti-interventionists like Coughlin and official government propaganda smeared them as "collaborating with the enemy."
Thus, Coughlin faded into obscurity, spending his retirement keeping a low profile and writing anti-communist pamphlets until his death in 1979. His church, the National Shrine of the Little Flower in Royal Oak, Michigan, still stands today and was declared a National Shrine by the United States Bishops Conference in 1998.
Modern history texts smear him as a demagogue and anti-Semite with fascist sympathies. This isn't surprising because the winners write history and the Illuminati has been the winner for quite some time now.
COUGHLIN'S FLAWS
While he was indeed a great voice of opposition against the New World Order, Father Coughlin did fall into the trap of describing it as a "Jewish conspiracy".
While he correctly identified Jewish central bankers such as Jacob Schiff as being behind the Russian Revolution and helped to expose the Protocols of Zion, he had a tendency to generalize the entire conspiracy as a Jewish plot. This led him to express a degree of sympathy for Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.
In this researcher's opinion, that was a mistake. While some Cabalistic Jews are involved in the New World Order, many Gentiles are involved as well, as Coughlin was surely aware of (i.e. Roosevelt). In addition, Hitler and Mussolini both were instruments of the same conspiracy and should not be admired, especially by a Christian like Coughlin. Speaking of a "Jewish conspiracy" severely discredited him and opened him to be smeared into obscurity with the charge of anti-Semitism.
CONCLUSION
Despite the above shortcomings, Father Charles Coughlin was a strong anti-NWO activist and showed steadfast courage and bravery in his crusade to expose those who run the Shadow government. He pointed to the power structure, the central bankers, and called to abolish their control center, the Federal Reserve. For this he should be commended and held as an example for all patriots who value God, Freedom, and Country.
Coughlin's story also brings with it a strain of pessimism, though. After all, if a man who once had the attention of a third of the nation could not effect change, what chance do we have of doing so today?
Friday, December 11, 2009
The Church - Under the milky way
Sometimes when this place gets kind of empty
Sound of their breath fades with the light
I think about the loveless fascination
Under the Milky Way tonight
Lower the curtain down on Memphis
Lower the curtain down all right
I got no time for private consultation
Under the Milky Way tonight
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
And it's something quite peculiar
Something shimmering and white
Leads you here despite your destination
Under the Milky Way tonight
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Under the Milky way tonight..
Under the Milky Way tonight...
Sound of their breath fades with the light
I think about the loveless fascination
Under the Milky Way tonight
Lower the curtain down on Memphis
Lower the curtain down all right
I got no time for private consultation
Under the Milky Way tonight
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
And it's something quite peculiar
Something shimmering and white
Leads you here despite your destination
Under the Milky Way tonight
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Wish I knew what you were looking for
Might have known what you would find
Under the Milky way tonight..
Under the Milky Way tonight...
Wednesday, December 09, 2009
Sunday, December 06, 2009
Thursday, December 03, 2009
Pädagogik und Psychologie sind keine Wissenschaft, sondern eine Frage des Glaubens
Mittlerweile tauchen in
einem "Gutachten" vom Juli
dieses Jahres 2007,
das Sie mit dem Ergebnis
des Versuchs
der Verlängerung der
geschlossenen
Unterbringung
von Sonja H (15) anfertigten
erneut Anspielungen und
unwahre Behauptungen
über das "Umfeld"
der Jugendselbsthilfe auf,
die geeignet sind,
die Jugendselbsthilfe
von der Solidarität
Betroffener und empörter
Bürger abzutrennen.
Wir rufen die Öffentlichkeit auf,
zu prüfen, ob die
Diagnostizierung von
"psychischer Störung"
oder "Krankheit"
von "nicht krankheitseinsichtigen"
Jugendlichen,
die dem gesunden
Herrn Dr. Schanda
gegenüber mehr
oder weniger gutachterlich
ausgeliefert sind,
auch geeignet ist,
ihre eventuellen Berichte
und Hilferufe
über von ihnen
vielleicht erlebte
Misshandlungen
insbesondere
später in den Clearingstellen
und damit verbundenen
Netzwerken –
für unglaubwürdig
zu erklären.
Denn dass dort
keine Gewalt vorkomme
schon allein weil es sich
Zwangsgefangenschaften
handelt,
das glaubt doch wohl niemand
Wir sind keine Wissenden,
doch selbst wenn
eine betroffene Person
verständlicherweise
zu ihrem eigenen Schutz
irgend wann einmal,
als alles anfing
und ein AUFHÄNGER
gebraucht wurde
um sie ins Heim
einzuliefern
nicht ganz
die Wahrheit erzählt haben sollte,
was die Gründe
für einen Polizeieinsatz lieferte,
mit dem alles anfing,
war das genial,
für die,
die Sonja schon lange
weg haben
wollten von der Familie
aber für uns allein stellt
schon das Tage - Wochen -
monatelange Einsperren
von 12 -16- Jährigen
eine schwere
Kindesmisshandlung dar.
Und im Verhältnis zu dem,
lieber Herr Schanda
was man so alles
schlimmes schon
der Familie anhängte
und angehängt hat
ist das, was sie oder
andere mit ihr
in der Clearingstelle
machen
doch nur Peanuts,
richtig?
Also sucht man doch
etwas „Böses“ in der Familie,
um ihre Trennung
zu rechtfertigen,
stimmts?
Oder kommt man
auch ohne aus?
Um ihre Gefangenschaft
öffentlich zu rechtfertigen?
Genau wie andere, die immer
Die TERRORISTEN sind
Und man selber
Sich „Verteidiger der
Freiheit“ nennen darf
Aber gleichermassen
Leben zerstört
Würden Eltern so etwas tun
wie Sie
Oder die, die ausserhalb
Ihrer Psychiatrie
das gleiche tun wie Sie,
was das Einsperren
von Kindern anbelangt,
wäre ihr Kind sofort
weggefangt.
Aber wenn Ober- Psychodoxs
Kinder einsperren
oder einsperren lassen,
dann ist das
natürlich in Ordnung....
Weil es gibt auch hier
wie gesagt
ein gutes und
ein böses Einsperren
Aber unter solchen
Bedingungen
kann schon
die kleinste Bemerkung
gegenüber den Ausgelieferten
als GEWALT erlebt werden.
Der brisante Hilferuf von
Sonja, der ansatzweise
womöglich
dokumentieren sollte,
was sich in geschlossenen
gefängnisartigen
Einrichtungen
In solchen als Alptraum
erlebten Burgen,
wie in der "Clearing"
Regensburg
abgespielt haben könnte,
und vielleicht sogar
tagtäglich abspielt,
ist von „unbekannt“ aus dem
Internet entfernt worden.
Das geht in die Richtung,
als ob jemand,
der sich beschwert,
von dem, über den er sich
beschwert,
dafür mehr noch als nur
eine Beschwerde kassiert,
was ihm eigentlich einfiele,
sich über ihn zu beschweren
und als Lügner
bezeichnet wird.
Denn es gäbe ja keinen
Grund zur Beschwerde.
Sagen die, gegen die
die Beschwerde gerichtet ist
Oder ihre Artverwandten
selbstredende „neutrale“
Beschwerdeprüfungs -
Onkelstanten
Wir können uns
schon denken,
auf Grund wessen
Veranlassung,
Beschwerden über
Zustände in Heimen
Und Psychiatrien
fast immer
unglaubwürdig sind
Wegen Artikel 5 Grundgesetz:
"eine Zensur findet nicht statt!"
scheint es nicht gemacht
worden zu sein.
Aus Gründen der Verteidigung
anspruchsloser Bescheidenheit
in Sachen subjektiver
Objektivitätsanmassung
auch nicht.
Aber es gibt dieses
Ermittlungsverfahren wegen
Kindesmißhandlung
gegen unbekannt.
Und den Versuch
herauszufinden,
was da los ist
in den Clearingstellen.
Aber nur den Versuch.
Etwas über den Ausgang -
wer weiss das schon?
Werden wir wohl nie erfahren,
Besonders wenn es mal
wieder zu Unrecht geschah
dass Freiheit gestohlen wurde
hüllen sich Diebe
gern in Schweigen
Doch seitdem der Hilferuf
von Sonja aus der Clearingstelle
heraus öffentlich bekannt wurde,
ist nichts mehr so anonym
und verschwiegen wie vorher
Die Betroffene stellte es
auf jeden Fall so dar,
dass sie mißhandelt wurde.
Jetzt sitzt sie wegen einer
"Falschaussage" bezüglich
einer anderen Aussage
gegen ihre Mutter vor Gericht.
Aus dem „wer einmal lügt,
dem glaubt man immer“
Wird dann wohl doch
nichts nimmer
Sonja sagt, sie habe nur
deshalb die Polizei gerufen,
weil sie eine Wut
darauf gehabt habe,
dass sie an jenem Tag
nicht mehr fortgehen durfte
Mittlerweile ist daraus
fast eine
„Geisteskrankheit“ geworden.
Benutzt als Vorwand,
zu verstecken,
was nicht sein darf:
Die eigenen Nasen
Von Osterhasen
Auf dem Winterrasen
Zumindest hält
dieser Zustand
ihrer
Gefangennahme schon
sehr lange an,
die auf jenen Tag
zurückzuführen ist,
dass man sie
sehr ernst nahm,
als gegen die Mutter
die Polizei geholt wurde
Weil sie etwas
gegen ihre Eltern
vorbrachte,
was man brauchte
und nutzte,
um sie von dort
zu entfernen
Inzwischen aber
scheint sie plötzlich
nicht mehr nützlich,
denn sie verteidigt
neuerdings
wieder ihre Eltern,
und sie will
raus aus dem Heim.
Aber sie verteidigt
nicht mehr die, die sie
von den Eltern
getrennt haben
Und dafür
Aufhängerchen brauchen,
warum sie das taten.
Gerade im nachhinein,
weil es jetzt
darum geht,
was sie selber
mit ihr machten
und machen
Und falls es
diesmal stimmt,
was sie sagt,
wie man sie hat
verbogen
hat sie diesmal sicher
wieder gelogen
„Aus finanziellen
Gründen“
zu sagen „aber
machen wir das“
und „aus
gekränkter Eitelkeit
und Besserwisserei
machen wir das
mit Sonja und anderen“
zu sagen
Trauen sie sich nicht.
Das klingt nicht schön
Das klingt nach benutzen
Man beruft sich lieber
auf die edlere Version,
sie vor ihren bösen
Eltern zu schützen,
Eine Frage noch:
traut man sich
das eigentlich
nur bei jenen
von denen
man weiss
die können sich
schlecht wehren?
Sonst wäre wohl
der Skandal doch
um einiges zu gross
Wie aber kann ein Mädchen,
im jugendamtlichen
Zangengriff
oder bereits
in einer Psycho –
Spezialeinrichtung
die Chance haben,
dass ihr geglaubt wird,
von wem dort
auch immer,
von denen,
die sie so behandeln
wenn auf der anderen
Seite schon allein
aufgrund von
Positionen erhabener
"Wissenschaftlichkeit"
und "Seriösität"
viel mehr "Glaubwürdigkeit"
gilt, als bei
"so einem“, wie sich
schon ausgedrückt wurde,
„streunenden“ Mädchen?"
Mit anderen Worten:
Wer so misshandelt
Bekommt immer Recht
Und kann es fast immer
auch verstecken
Aber wir wissen ja
nach den Schilderungen
Der Stelle selbst:
Zum Glück ist das ja
in diesem Falle nicht so
Krankheit als Bestrafung
oder Bestrafung
als "Krankheit"?
Eine dritte, auch an
"Oppositionalität erkrankt",
soll neben Sonja H.
Melissa B.
noch existieren,
die vor einem Anwalt
berichtet haben soll,
daß sie gesehen hätte,
wie ein Junge in der
Clearingstelle heftig
mißhandelt worden sei..
Wir können uns dennoch
aus rechtlichen Gründen
hier nur distanzieren,
denn wehe,
irgend jemand behaupte,
das sei wahr.
Gnade ihm
und Gnade
seinem eigenen Leben.
Eben
denn wir können selbst
nur wenig davon überprüfen
aber wir können
die Öffentlichkeit bitten
dieses zu tun.
Was wir hiermit tun
Und dann dieses Mädchen,
das sich nicht
ausziehen wollte,
um sich leiblich,
seelisch und geistig
„clearen“ zu lassen,
kennen Sie sie?
Halten Sie es für möglich,
dass man wirklich
die Polizei holte
die sie dann auszog
und unter die Dusche
zog?
Da hinein begutachten Sie
Ihnen hilflos ausgelieferte
Kinder ? Und warum lässt
die Bevölkerung das zu?
Wurde sie nicht schon
auf der Polizeiwache gefilzt,
bevor sie
in das Geschlossene
zurück kehren
musste –
warum dann noch mal
dieses Ritual??
3 Mädchen, 3mal von Ihnen,
Herr Doktor Schanda !!!
Mindestens, können wir
von hier aus nur dazu fragen:
Wie viele waren es
insgesamt?
Sie wissen doch,
wie es dort zugeht?
Warum liefern Sie
die Gutachten dafür?
Einen nach Regensburg,
eine nach Gauting
Einen nach Rummelsberg-
Wer teilt hier wen ein für was?
An was erinnert das?
Warum weigern Sie sich nicht,
wenn Sie doch genau wissen,
was Clearing
Regensburg heisst?
Was ist eigentlich
aus dem“oppositionellen
Verhalten“ von
Melissa B. geworden ?
Na, da war wohl
die Lobby für Melissa
für sie doch wohl zu stark?
Aber vielleicht haben
auch Ausserirdische
für ihre plötzliche
Heilung gesorgt,
wer weiss-
denn von heute
auf morgen
waren keine Gründe
mehr da für ihre Einweisung
Die angebliche
Begutachtung
in immer mehr
uns bekannt
gewordenen Fällen
als "oppositionell",
im Sinne von "gestört"
oder als "krank")
bekräftigt jedenfalls
unsere Besorgnis
keiner
wissenschaftlichen
Objektivität,
sondern eines
unwissenschaftlichen
psychologischen Horrors.
Wir fragen: wo sind
die Betroffenen jetzt ?
Fazit: Mißhandlungen in
Clearingstellen,
die speziell für "oppositionelle"
(kriminelle? zwangs –
schulverweigernde?)
Jugendliche neu
eingerichtet scheinen –
gibt es offiziell nicht.
"Amnesty international" hat
wie meist immer
in Deutschland
es noch nicht mitbekommen -
die kennen nur bootcamps im Ausland
aber es findet hier ja eben d i r e k t
vor der Haustür statt,
und nicht weit weg –
Da kann man es halt
nicht so gut sehen
weil es zu nah dran ist
am Auge
Hier das Nürnberger Konzept:
Das Konzept
Da liegt also höchstens
ein "erziehungsgewaltfreier,
humaner" Freiheitsentzug
von 12 bis 16-jährigen
zu Ihrem Wohle vor,
oder wie soll man es nennen?
Unsere Meinung
und Befürchtung:
Packt das Mädchen aus
über Dinge,
die sie als Gewalt erlebt hat,
oder je nach dem widerruft sie,
"lügt" sie halt.
Sie ist ja "krank".
"Sie hat ja schon
einmal gelogen!"
So könnte alles,
was sie in Zukunft aussagt,
als „gelogen“
hingestellt werden.
Selbst wenn sie
etwas Wahres
über die Clearing
berichten sollte,
kommt der Beweis
höchstens per Zufall.
So abgeschottet
geht es rund
Denn diese Clearing
Kindergefängnisse stehen
auf dem Spiel
Und der Ruf derer,
die sie befürworten
und darin arbeiten
Oder: macht das
Mädchen zuerst
eine nicht mal selbst
unterschriebene Belastung
ihrer Eltern und sagt sie
in einer zweiten Vernehmung,
sie habe aus einer
Notsituation heraus gelogen,
und jetzt fragt: „was erzählen die da,
ich habe meine Aussagen damals
überhaupt nicht unterschrieben“
weil sie Wut gehabt habe
dass sie nicht mehr raus durfte,
und wollte ihre erste
Aussage zurück nehmen,
klagte man sie an wegen
„Falschaussage“ an.
Hat man das bei Stefan M.,
dem "Zeugen"
des angeblichen
Fahrraddiebstahls
auch gemacht?
Wurde er etwa bestraft
für seine falschen Aussagen?
Nein!
Jetzt aber wurde
Sonja (15) verurteilt
weil sie evtl. GEGEN
die Einrichtung aussagt,
in der sie fest
gehalten wird.
Stefan (27) aber sagte
FÜR die Institutionen aus.
Die der JUGENDSELBSTHILFE
an den Kragen wollten
Deshalb darf er
ungestraft falsch beschuldigen.
Das ist der Unterschied
Deutscher „demokratischer“
Gerechtigkeitssprechung
Für menschenrechtlich
Aktive in Nürnberg
speziell, hahahah.
Wie gut, dass es doch
im Falle Stefan,
die objektive „Verifikation“
des so genannten
"geistigen
Behindertenbegriffes"
gibt
Stefan ist “objektiv“
„geistig behindert“? Hahaha.
Deshalb hat er auch keinerlei
Strafen für seine
Falschgaussagen zu erwarten
Nur eines möchten
wir schon gerne wissen:
hat Herr B ö h r i n g e r –
Kennen Sie ihn zufällig,
Herr Doktor ?-
das dem Stefan bei seiner
Vernehmung auch gesagt
oder fühlen lassen-
er brauche keine Angst
zu haben für seine
eigenen Delikte
(Fahrraddiebstähle u.a)
bestraft zu werden,
da er ja als
"objektiv behindert"
gelte oder ähnliches?
Oder gar ihm hoch
angerechnet werde,
wenn er „kooperiere?
Beweisen Sie mal, dass er
es FÜHLEN liess
können Sie das, Angeklagter?
Oder warum brauchte Stefan
keine Angst zu haben
und konnte
Herrn Böhringer ,
seinem „Duzfreund“,
„schon vertrauen“
Und munter loslegen
Konnte mit seinen
Falschbesachuldigungen,
die geeignet waren,
Existenzen und Leben zu zerstören
Wenn er durchgekommen wäre.?
Warum hat er denn gehofft,
im Falle seiner (falschen)
Aussagen
mit einer milden Strafe
in eigener Sache zu rechnen ?
Was würde denn passieren,
wenn so genannte "Laien"
ganz andere Personen,
zum Beispiel vernehmende
Beamte oder Professoren
Richter, Psychiater, Polizisten
in gewissem Sinne als "be-hindert"
oder gar
"nicht zurechnungsfähig"
oder als „gemein“
und „gefährlich“
bezeichnen würden?
Zum Beispiel in Sachen
Bekämpfung
der Jugendselbsthilfe
und ihrer Freunde?
Die Hölle wäre los.
Ein Beamten und
Professorenaufstand
würde losbrechen!
Denn nur "qualifizierte"
Menschen sind
dafür kompetent,
andere nicht Qualifizierte für
„nicht zurechnungsfähig“
zu erklären,
andersherum nicht.
Findet etwa deshalb
so mancher
Studiengang statt,
um nachher besser getarnt,
im Mäntelchen der
„Wissenschaftlichkeit“
und „Seriösität“einfache
Menschen fertig machen
zu können?
Da ist sie wieder,
die verlogene
Objektivitätsverliebtheit,
die hier
zur Disposition steht.
Warum sollte Sonjas
"Unglaubwürdigkeit"
gerichtlich dokumentiert
werden, wenn nicht
ihr späterer Hilferuf
aus der Clearingstelle
mit im Spiel wäre ?
Warum dann,
wenn dort alles
zum "Wohle
der Kinder " zugeht,
sehen sich die Eltern Sonjas
mit Kontakt-
und Besuchsverboten
konfrontiert, falls sie
an die Öffentlichkeit
gingen?
Lügen sie auch?
das geschlossene
Mädchenheim
München-Gauting
- Endstation der bayerischen
- Kinder- Gefängnislosigkeit
Sonja fühlt sich nun
sogar für den Fall der
(nicht?) Aufrechterhaltung
ihrer Aussagen
über ihre Behandlung
in der Clearing
von einer Einweisung
in das
noch gefürchtetere
geschlossene
Mädchenheim
Gauting bedroht
Aber das stimmt ja gar nicht,
könnte man dann sagen,
wenn man sie erst einmal
für unglaubwürdig erklärt hat,
sie wurde ja gar nicht
mit Gauting bedroht,
Sie lügt ja immer-
also fühlt sie auch falsch
wenn sie sich weiter
über die Zustände
in Regensburg
beschweren sollte.
Das hat sie also
nur gesagt,
weil sie eine
Lügnerin ist?
Deshalb musste das
Verfahren von Sonja,
wo es um ihre
Glaubwürdigkeit ging,
eine große Bedeutung haben.
Für die von ihr
behaupteten,
aber von den
Verantwortlichen
abgestrittenen
willensbrechenden
und anderen Gewalt-
Strukturen
in der Regensburger
Clearingstelle.
Dr. Schanda
schreibt ab
Dr.Schanda objektiv,
wie er ist und sich
keinesfalls über die
Folgen
seiner Behauptungen
bewusst oder etwa doch?
verbreitet neue
Unwahrheiten über die
Jugendselbsthilfe in
seinem
neuen „Gutachten“
über Sonja.
Um Abgrenzung zur
Jugendselbsthilfe
durch Mobilisierung von
Gefühlen
"christlich abendländischer"
Sexualmoral bei
christlichen Betroffenen
seines Objektivierungs-
"Gutachtenwohn –
Sinns" zu mobilisieren
oder warum?
Wir haben Wohnraum
für Aktivisten:
Die Psychiatrie auch
Dr. Schanda im Kampf
für seine Belegbetten
Zitate: aus dem
„Gutachten Dr. Schanda
über Sonja:
"Zudem habe sich
Sonja bei der Mutter
und bei Freunden
aus der "Jugendselbsthilfe"
Nürnberg aufgehalten.
Frage: Wieviel Minuten
Herr Doktor? 5 oder 6?
Zitat von uns im Gutachten
über Sonja von Dr.
Schanda zitiert" weil wir
flüchtende Kinder
nicht abweisen,
befinden wir uns
selbst in einer
"Grauzone" zwischen
"legalität" und
"Illegalität"
Dies ist unsere
Grundsituation.
Viele Kinder und
Jugendliche flüchten
lieber zu uns oder
verbringen ihre freie
Zeit mit uns,
als sich irgend
welchen "Sozialarbeitern"
anzuvertrauen.
Die Diskriminierung
oder Kriminalisierung
unserer Flüchtlingshilfe
kann das Vertrauen
in die so
genannten
"christlich abendländischen"
Grundwerte***
vollkommen erschüttern."
Kommentar:
*** Weniger bei uns
als bei bei Ihnen selbst,
Herr Dr. Schanda,
werden wohl die
"christlich abendländischen
Grundwerte der Bergpredigt"
nicht mehr so ganz
stimmen,
so wie es ausschaut.
Ps: bei Herrn Busch
auch nicht .
Und auch Herr Calvin
lässt grüssen.
Kapitalprofit als "Christlicher
Grundwert" christlich und
sozial halt!
Seitdem man offensichtlich
hier und da auch
schon mal einen Völkermord
im Namen "christlich
abendländischer
Grundwerte"
begehen darf,
fragen wir uns
wirklich ,
was hat dieses schöne
Zitat von uns. tatsächlich in Ihrem
"Gutachten" über Sonja
zu suchen?
Wie lang sind eigentlich
eigentlich die Wunden,
die sich Kinder und
Jugendliche in der
Clearingstelle Regensburg,
im Mädchenheim Gauting
und in Kinderpsychiatrien ritzen?
und jetzt legen Sie los,
als ob ein Kind
von der Jugendselbsthilfe
überfahren worden wäre
und deshalb Sonja
nicht mehr zur
Jugendselbsthilfe hin könne.
Das fehlt grad noch,
dass man ihr sowas
auch noch mitteilen würde.
Damit Sonja sich ja noch traut,
unsere Hilfe
in Anspruch zu nehmen
Oder hat das bereits
wirklich jemand zu ihr
gesagt?
Forts. Gutachtentext
„I n
d i e s e m
U m f e l d (! ) [der JSH]
war es auch
zu erneuten
Selbstverletzungen (Dr.Remold:
10-12 kleinere
Schnittwunden an Sonjas
Hand und 22 Schnittwunden
von je 4 cm
Länge am linken Unterarm,
siehe Bericht des ASD
vom 2.4.2007 an das
Familiengericht“ ***
gekommen
Kommentar
*** Kompletter Nonsense.
Herr Dr. Schanda
sie sprechen die Unwahrheit.
Und Sie schreiben ab
Pädagogen Psychologen
können Todes-Urteile
aussprechen,
wenn sie nur abschreiben
und so genannte
"Gutachten", anfertigen
der bösartigsten Art,
wie sie wollen,
wenn sie wollen,
Wenn man sich vorstellt,
solche Falschbeschuldigungen
und Urteile über psychische
Befindlichkeiten
können Menschen
ein ganzes Leben lang
eingespert halten,
in Abhängigkeit
eines Betreuers
beispielsweise
am lebendigen
Leibe verelenden
und dahin siechen lassen,
belasten und zugrunde richten.
und jetzt
Original Gutachtentext
...und (im Umfeld der JSH“)
war es auch zu
ungeschütztem
Geschlechtsverkehr
unter Alkoholeinfluss gekommen***
Kommentar
***das ist schon
nicht mehr Nonsense,
das ist nun wirklich bösartig.
Sagen Sie,
schreiben Sie immer ab?
Langsam fragen wir uns,
wie Sie überhaupt
Ihre Qualifikation
erworben haben
Sie, Herr Dr.Schanda,
müssten doch eigentlich
von Ihrer Ausbildung her
wissen,
daß Wissenschaft
vom Für und Wider
verschiedener Positionen
und dem Abwägen
dieser Positionen lebt.
Hätten Sie nicht
selber eine eigene
Recherche anstellen
müssen,
ob diese Angaben
des ASD
überhaupt stimmen?
Wer so schlechte
Arbeit für
teures Geld macht,
ist schlicht nur
ein Ab-Sahner!!!
Eigentlich
ein perfekter Rufmord,
was Sie da
über uns verbreiten
Eigentlich keine
kriminelle Handlung
so verlogen und
schwammig ist
das formuliert,
Stellen Sie sich einmal
vor, jemand würde
behaupten,
Sie Herr Schanda
haben hier
kriminell gehandelt
Zum Glück haben Sie
es ja nicht
aber viele denken
deshalb nur das eine:
Sonja hat
in der Jugendselbsthilfe
oder bei deren
Verbündeten
einen ungeschützten
Sexualverkehr
unter Alkoholeinfluss
„verbrochen“
# das passt
ins Klischee. #
Stimmt absolut nicht.
Kein cm davon ist wahr.
Wir nehmen an,
Sie Herr Dr. Schanda,
haben das
nur irgendwo
ins Gutachten
komplett hinein
abgeschrieben,
Wir haben früher
auch immer
abgeschrieben
Wenn wir eine
Prüfung machten.
Aber als Doktor tut man
so etwas natürlich nicht?
Sie sind doch
schliesslich ein Gutachter
Aber Ihre Gutachten
haben bösartige
verheerende Folgen
Ist es etwa nicht
ihre Aufgabe, heraus
zu finden, ob das,
was Sie unkritisch
von anderen übernehmen
und abschreiben
tatsächlich stimmt?
Damit niemand mehr,
der unsere Berichte liest,
und unsere Glaubwürdigkeit
auf dem Spiel steht,
denken solle,
„ach,das sind ja nur die“...
Deshalb werden wir
in Nürnberg
Belächelt und nicht angehört.
Und als Menschenrechtler
Kriminalisiert.
Genau deshalb
...damit wir zurückschrecken
sollten, Ihre haarsträubenden
„Diagnosen“ in der
Öffentlichkeit bekannt
zu machen.
Darum wurde
das geschrieben !
Oder kennen Sie
vielleicht
noch andere Fälle
gutachterlichen Abschreibens?
Meinten Sie vielleicht
die j ü n g e r e S c h w e s t e r
von Sonja,
die unter Aufsichtspflicht
des Reutersbrunnenheims
Nürnberg
mit einem etwas älteren
Jungen eine Affaire hatte ?
Eine völlig andere Person
an einem völlig anderen Ort
zu Lasten
der Jugendselbsthilfe!
Mal wieder
wie das Herr Dr. Wagner
bereits in einem
anderen Fall praktizierte
Diese Passage
zeigt deutlich,
dass Sie vor keiner
falschen Darstellung
zurückschrecken,
Herr Doktor !
Und schon werden
Sonjas Hilferufe über die
Zustände bei Ihnen
und in Ihrem „Umfeld“
immer glaubwürdiger!
Sollte das in Wahrheit
etwa auch für die
A n s c h u l d i g u n g
von
„Oppositionalität“
als Krankheit gelten?
Krankheitskatalog halt,
Nummer
F xy , Sie wissen schon...
abgeschrieben....
Gibts für Berufssparten
ausser für BERUFUNGEN
diese „Krankheits“- Listen
eigentlich auch schon?
Zum Beispiel
„Oppositionalist-muß“
psychiatrischer
Allmachtgefühle
gegen natürliche
freie Entfaltungen
von
Kinderselbstbestimmung?
Denn Sie können sich ja
Stets darauf „berufen“,
was Sie abgeschrieben
haben
was für ein Glück !
Was von anderen
stamme,
und „wissenschaftlich
gesichert“ sei
nicht von ihnen
Andere haben es
vorformuliert,
nicht Sie -
Sie schreiben
zuweilen lieber ab
Wir empfinden dies
aber als sehr gemein
und gefährlich.
Was sie mit Ihren
"GUT8en tun
und verbreiten,
Herr Doktor!
Wie viele Kinder haben denn Sie
so pro Jahr gut im Griff?
Wobei Sie natürlich
mit dem Be - Griff
"Umfeld der JSH"
alle Optionen
mit einbeziehen,
denn j e d e r MENSCH
gehört zum "Umfeld der JSH"
Auch Sie selbst
übrigreagensglas,
Herr Doktor
Wer weiss schon genau,
was so manche Ärzte
und andere Berufsgruppen
im Umfeld der JSH so alles tun ?
Es geht uns ja nichts an,
aber
haben Sie denn auch
schon mal
im „Umfeld“ der
Jugendselbsthilfe
Geschlechtsverkehr gehabt ?
Oder gar ungeschützt
und unter Alkoholeinfluss?
Mit anderen Worten:
bei den Formulierungen,
wie „UMFELD“
wäre die JSH
für alles verantwortlich
machbar,
was überhaupt passiert
auf der Welt
Schandarismus-Theorien
und die Folgen
für wehrlose Kinder!
und der Anschein
von Objektivität
mitten im Menschtrechtsfrass
von
Nürnbergs davon ablenkender
Kinderentrechtungssuppe
Mit Todesfolgen
und die „Wahrheit“
von Aufrichtigkeit der Nürnberger
Menschen-rechts-politik immer dabei...
„Scharlatanerieobjektivismus“
im Gewand
von "Wissenschaftlichkeit,"
an die die Leute
glauben sollen
wie der Schwanz
an seine Ratte
Deshalb gibt es hier
"Bildung" und Wissen“,
das auch in dieser Stadt
so viele Menschen schafft!"
Man kann Menschen
auch so weit treiben,
dass man
sie zu Tode schützt
oder
zu ihrem „Schutz“
irgend etwas behauptet,
zum Beispiel,
dass sie „krank“ seien,
was man nachher
dafür benutzen kann,
um sie in der Öffentlichkeit
unglaubwürdig
erscheinen zu lassen,
wenn sie mal etwas
berichten sollten.
Zum Beispiel über Sie.
Das macht sie krank.
Wenn Sie sie
für krank erklären und sie
es vielleicht gar nicht sind
Für den Fall muss man
sich jedoch absichern
dass die Kinder
eines Tages
anfangen könnten
über ihre TREIBER
auszupacken
und auszuspucken.
und gegen
grosse LEIBER
aufzumucken
mit GEIST
und SEELE.
Ungereinigt
...forderen wir Sie auf,
einmal mit uns öffentlich
zu diskutieren,
und freuen uns auf
Ihren Terminvorschlag
wie es sich denn
in diesem unseren
„Gesundheitswesen“
verhält
Ihrer Meinung nach
mit noch vielen anderen
„unkranken“ "Diagnosen,"
und was jetzt
nach diesem Artikel,
Herr Doktor,
davon noch
übrig geblieben ist
von Ihrer eigenen
"Objekt - tief - ität"
und warum dieses
für Kinder
selbst überhaupt nicht
nachvollziehbare
definitorische Getrixe
im Mäntelchen der
„Wissenschaftlichkeit“
immer noch ein sehr
hohes Ansehen geniesst
und Kinder in die
Rollen von
„erkrankten
Entwicklungsgestörten“
zwingt
Erwachsene,
die das aushecken,
aber nicht
und eine fast schon
religiöse Schein – heilige
und sektenmässige
Gaubensgemeinschaft
nach der anderen
mit einer hochbezahlten
Scharlatanlosigkeit
konstituiert,
die durch die Fülle
an Leere so genannter
„Psychologie“
in der Bevölkerung
verheerendes anrichtet
und heilig spricht
und so am liebsten
fast jede/n
die / der hier in
entschiedener Opposition
zu solchen Programmen
steht, folglich,
da diese dank
des „gesunden
Volksempfindens“
„Krankheit“ genannt
werden darf
und als dumpfdreiste
„Volkspsychologie“
einfach nicht
zum Aussterben
zu bringen ist,
natürlich
"behandlungswürdig"
sei,
Ihrer Meinung nach auch ?,
wenn man zukünftig
ganz allgemein an
verhaltensstörender
"Oppositionalität"
"erkrankt" wäre?
Das hätten Sie vielleicht
in einer anderen Zeit
durchbringen können
in Deutschland, Herr Doktor
Aber in dieser ??????
Wie wäre es,
Herr Dr.Schanda,
wenn wir uns
zum Beispiel
beim
Schandmaul –
Jubiläumskonzert
Konzert am 14.11.07
in München bei
einem Glas Apfelsaft
gemuetlich unterhalten?
Vielleicht sind Sie ja doch
nicht so,
wie Ihre „Gutachten“?
Aufgrund unserer sehr
unterschiedlichen
sozialen Lage, wären
wir Ihnen natürlich
dankbar,
wenn Sie uns
ausnahmsweise
die Fahrt und
Konzertkarte spenden.
Selbstverständlich
stehen wir
Ihnen dafür
auch in Nürnberg,
falls Sie einmal selbst
Probleme haben sollten,
zum Beispiel mit diesem Text
jederzeit zu
einem kostenlosen
Beratungsgespräch
zur Verfügung
Ihre Jugendselbsthilfe
Source: http://www.akkak.de/
einem "Gutachten" vom Juli
dieses Jahres 2007,
das Sie mit dem Ergebnis
des Versuchs
der Verlängerung der
geschlossenen
Unterbringung
von Sonja H (15) anfertigten
erneut Anspielungen und
unwahre Behauptungen
über das "Umfeld"
der Jugendselbsthilfe auf,
die geeignet sind,
die Jugendselbsthilfe
von der Solidarität
Betroffener und empörter
Bürger abzutrennen.
Wir rufen die Öffentlichkeit auf,
zu prüfen, ob die
Diagnostizierung von
"psychischer Störung"
oder "Krankheit"
von "nicht krankheitseinsichtigen"
Jugendlichen,
die dem gesunden
Herrn Dr. Schanda
gegenüber mehr
oder weniger gutachterlich
ausgeliefert sind,
auch geeignet ist,
ihre eventuellen Berichte
und Hilferufe
über von ihnen
vielleicht erlebte
Misshandlungen
insbesondere
später in den Clearingstellen
und damit verbundenen
Netzwerken –
für unglaubwürdig
zu erklären.
Denn dass dort
keine Gewalt vorkomme
schon allein weil es sich
Zwangsgefangenschaften
handelt,
das glaubt doch wohl niemand
Wir sind keine Wissenden,
doch selbst wenn
eine betroffene Person
verständlicherweise
zu ihrem eigenen Schutz
irgend wann einmal,
als alles anfing
und ein AUFHÄNGER
gebraucht wurde
um sie ins Heim
einzuliefern
nicht ganz
die Wahrheit erzählt haben sollte,
was die Gründe
für einen Polizeieinsatz lieferte,
mit dem alles anfing,
war das genial,
für die,
die Sonja schon lange
weg haben
wollten von der Familie
aber für uns allein stellt
schon das Tage - Wochen -
monatelange Einsperren
von 12 -16- Jährigen
eine schwere
Kindesmisshandlung dar.
Und im Verhältnis zu dem,
lieber Herr Schanda
was man so alles
schlimmes schon
der Familie anhängte
und angehängt hat
ist das, was sie oder
andere mit ihr
in der Clearingstelle
machen
doch nur Peanuts,
richtig?
Also sucht man doch
etwas „Böses“ in der Familie,
um ihre Trennung
zu rechtfertigen,
stimmts?
Oder kommt man
auch ohne aus?
Um ihre Gefangenschaft
öffentlich zu rechtfertigen?
Genau wie andere, die immer
Die TERRORISTEN sind
Und man selber
Sich „Verteidiger der
Freiheit“ nennen darf
Aber gleichermassen
Leben zerstört
Würden Eltern so etwas tun
wie Sie
Oder die, die ausserhalb
Ihrer Psychiatrie
das gleiche tun wie Sie,
was das Einsperren
von Kindern anbelangt,
wäre ihr Kind sofort
weggefangt.
Aber wenn Ober- Psychodoxs
Kinder einsperren
oder einsperren lassen,
dann ist das
natürlich in Ordnung....
Weil es gibt auch hier
wie gesagt
ein gutes und
ein böses Einsperren
Aber unter solchen
Bedingungen
kann schon
die kleinste Bemerkung
gegenüber den Ausgelieferten
als GEWALT erlebt werden.
Der brisante Hilferuf von
Sonja, der ansatzweise
womöglich
dokumentieren sollte,
was sich in geschlossenen
gefängnisartigen
Einrichtungen
In solchen als Alptraum
erlebten Burgen,
wie in der "Clearing"
Regensburg
abgespielt haben könnte,
und vielleicht sogar
tagtäglich abspielt,
ist von „unbekannt“ aus dem
Internet entfernt worden.
Das geht in die Richtung,
als ob jemand,
der sich beschwert,
von dem, über den er sich
beschwert,
dafür mehr noch als nur
eine Beschwerde kassiert,
was ihm eigentlich einfiele,
sich über ihn zu beschweren
und als Lügner
bezeichnet wird.
Denn es gäbe ja keinen
Grund zur Beschwerde.
Sagen die, gegen die
die Beschwerde gerichtet ist
Oder ihre Artverwandten
selbstredende „neutrale“
Beschwerdeprüfungs -
Onkelstanten
Wir können uns
schon denken,
auf Grund wessen
Veranlassung,
Beschwerden über
Zustände in Heimen
Und Psychiatrien
fast immer
unglaubwürdig sind
Wegen Artikel 5 Grundgesetz:
"eine Zensur findet nicht statt!"
scheint es nicht gemacht
worden zu sein.
Aus Gründen der Verteidigung
anspruchsloser Bescheidenheit
in Sachen subjektiver
Objektivitätsanmassung
auch nicht.
Aber es gibt dieses
Ermittlungsverfahren wegen
Kindesmißhandlung
gegen unbekannt.
Und den Versuch
herauszufinden,
was da los ist
in den Clearingstellen.
Aber nur den Versuch.
Etwas über den Ausgang -
wer weiss das schon?
Werden wir wohl nie erfahren,
Besonders wenn es mal
wieder zu Unrecht geschah
dass Freiheit gestohlen wurde
hüllen sich Diebe
gern in Schweigen
Doch seitdem der Hilferuf
von Sonja aus der Clearingstelle
heraus öffentlich bekannt wurde,
ist nichts mehr so anonym
und verschwiegen wie vorher
Die Betroffene stellte es
auf jeden Fall so dar,
dass sie mißhandelt wurde.
Jetzt sitzt sie wegen einer
"Falschaussage" bezüglich
einer anderen Aussage
gegen ihre Mutter vor Gericht.
Aus dem „wer einmal lügt,
dem glaubt man immer“
Wird dann wohl doch
nichts nimmer
Sonja sagt, sie habe nur
deshalb die Polizei gerufen,
weil sie eine Wut
darauf gehabt habe,
dass sie an jenem Tag
nicht mehr fortgehen durfte
Mittlerweile ist daraus
fast eine
„Geisteskrankheit“ geworden.
Benutzt als Vorwand,
zu verstecken,
was nicht sein darf:
Die eigenen Nasen
Von Osterhasen
Auf dem Winterrasen
Zumindest hält
dieser Zustand
ihrer
Gefangennahme schon
sehr lange an,
die auf jenen Tag
zurückzuführen ist,
dass man sie
sehr ernst nahm,
als gegen die Mutter
die Polizei geholt wurde
Weil sie etwas
gegen ihre Eltern
vorbrachte,
was man brauchte
und nutzte,
um sie von dort
zu entfernen
Inzwischen aber
scheint sie plötzlich
nicht mehr nützlich,
denn sie verteidigt
neuerdings
wieder ihre Eltern,
und sie will
raus aus dem Heim.
Aber sie verteidigt
nicht mehr die, die sie
von den Eltern
getrennt haben
Und dafür
Aufhängerchen brauchen,
warum sie das taten.
Gerade im nachhinein,
weil es jetzt
darum geht,
was sie selber
mit ihr machten
und machen
Und falls es
diesmal stimmt,
was sie sagt,
wie man sie hat
verbogen
hat sie diesmal sicher
wieder gelogen
„Aus finanziellen
Gründen“
zu sagen „aber
machen wir das“
und „aus
gekränkter Eitelkeit
und Besserwisserei
machen wir das
mit Sonja und anderen“
zu sagen
Trauen sie sich nicht.
Das klingt nicht schön
Das klingt nach benutzen
Man beruft sich lieber
auf die edlere Version,
sie vor ihren bösen
Eltern zu schützen,
Eine Frage noch:
traut man sich
das eigentlich
nur bei jenen
von denen
man weiss
die können sich
schlecht wehren?
Sonst wäre wohl
der Skandal doch
um einiges zu gross
Wie aber kann ein Mädchen,
im jugendamtlichen
Zangengriff
oder bereits
in einer Psycho –
Spezialeinrichtung
die Chance haben,
dass ihr geglaubt wird,
von wem dort
auch immer,
von denen,
die sie so behandeln
wenn auf der anderen
Seite schon allein
aufgrund von
Positionen erhabener
"Wissenschaftlichkeit"
und "Seriösität"
viel mehr "Glaubwürdigkeit"
gilt, als bei
"so einem“, wie sich
schon ausgedrückt wurde,
„streunenden“ Mädchen?"
Mit anderen Worten:
Wer so misshandelt
Bekommt immer Recht
Und kann es fast immer
auch verstecken
Aber wir wissen ja
nach den Schilderungen
Der Stelle selbst:
Zum Glück ist das ja
in diesem Falle nicht so
Krankheit als Bestrafung
oder Bestrafung
als "Krankheit"?
Eine dritte, auch an
"Oppositionalität erkrankt",
soll neben Sonja H.
Melissa B.
noch existieren,
die vor einem Anwalt
berichtet haben soll,
daß sie gesehen hätte,
wie ein Junge in der
Clearingstelle heftig
mißhandelt worden sei..
Wir können uns dennoch
aus rechtlichen Gründen
hier nur distanzieren,
denn wehe,
irgend jemand behaupte,
das sei wahr.
Gnade ihm
und Gnade
seinem eigenen Leben.
Eben
denn wir können selbst
nur wenig davon überprüfen
aber wir können
die Öffentlichkeit bitten
dieses zu tun.
Was wir hiermit tun
Und dann dieses Mädchen,
das sich nicht
ausziehen wollte,
um sich leiblich,
seelisch und geistig
„clearen“ zu lassen,
kennen Sie sie?
Halten Sie es für möglich,
dass man wirklich
die Polizei holte
die sie dann auszog
und unter die Dusche
zog?
Da hinein begutachten Sie
Ihnen hilflos ausgelieferte
Kinder ? Und warum lässt
die Bevölkerung das zu?
Wurde sie nicht schon
auf der Polizeiwache gefilzt,
bevor sie
in das Geschlossene
zurück kehren
musste –
warum dann noch mal
dieses Ritual??
3 Mädchen, 3mal von Ihnen,
Herr Doktor Schanda !!!
Mindestens, können wir
von hier aus nur dazu fragen:
Wie viele waren es
insgesamt?
Sie wissen doch,
wie es dort zugeht?
Warum liefern Sie
die Gutachten dafür?
Einen nach Regensburg,
eine nach Gauting
Einen nach Rummelsberg-
Wer teilt hier wen ein für was?
An was erinnert das?
Warum weigern Sie sich nicht,
wenn Sie doch genau wissen,
was Clearing
Regensburg heisst?
Was ist eigentlich
aus dem“oppositionellen
Verhalten“ von
Melissa B. geworden ?
Na, da war wohl
die Lobby für Melissa
für sie doch wohl zu stark?
Aber vielleicht haben
auch Ausserirdische
für ihre plötzliche
Heilung gesorgt,
wer weiss-
denn von heute
auf morgen
waren keine Gründe
mehr da für ihre Einweisung
Die angebliche
Begutachtung
in immer mehr
uns bekannt
gewordenen Fällen
als "oppositionell",
im Sinne von "gestört"
oder als "krank")
bekräftigt jedenfalls
unsere Besorgnis
keiner
wissenschaftlichen
Objektivität,
sondern eines
unwissenschaftlichen
psychologischen Horrors.
Wir fragen: wo sind
die Betroffenen jetzt ?
Fazit: Mißhandlungen in
Clearingstellen,
die speziell für "oppositionelle"
(kriminelle? zwangs –
schulverweigernde?)
Jugendliche neu
eingerichtet scheinen –
gibt es offiziell nicht.
"Amnesty international" hat
wie meist immer
in Deutschland
es noch nicht mitbekommen -
die kennen nur bootcamps im Ausland
aber es findet hier ja eben d i r e k t
vor der Haustür statt,
und nicht weit weg –
Da kann man es halt
nicht so gut sehen
weil es zu nah dran ist
am Auge
Hier das Nürnberger Konzept:
Das Konzept
Da liegt also höchstens
ein "erziehungsgewaltfreier,
humaner" Freiheitsentzug
von 12 bis 16-jährigen
zu Ihrem Wohle vor,
oder wie soll man es nennen?
Unsere Meinung
und Befürchtung:
Packt das Mädchen aus
über Dinge,
die sie als Gewalt erlebt hat,
oder je nach dem widerruft sie,
"lügt" sie halt.
Sie ist ja "krank".
"Sie hat ja schon
einmal gelogen!"
So könnte alles,
was sie in Zukunft aussagt,
als „gelogen“
hingestellt werden.
Selbst wenn sie
etwas Wahres
über die Clearing
berichten sollte,
kommt der Beweis
höchstens per Zufall.
So abgeschottet
geht es rund
Denn diese Clearing
Kindergefängnisse stehen
auf dem Spiel
Und der Ruf derer,
die sie befürworten
und darin arbeiten
Oder: macht das
Mädchen zuerst
eine nicht mal selbst
unterschriebene Belastung
ihrer Eltern und sagt sie
in einer zweiten Vernehmung,
sie habe aus einer
Notsituation heraus gelogen,
und jetzt fragt: „was erzählen die da,
ich habe meine Aussagen damals
überhaupt nicht unterschrieben“
weil sie Wut gehabt habe
dass sie nicht mehr raus durfte,
und wollte ihre erste
Aussage zurück nehmen,
klagte man sie an wegen
„Falschaussage“ an.
Hat man das bei Stefan M.,
dem "Zeugen"
des angeblichen
Fahrraddiebstahls
auch gemacht?
Wurde er etwa bestraft
für seine falschen Aussagen?
Nein!
Jetzt aber wurde
Sonja (15) verurteilt
weil sie evtl. GEGEN
die Einrichtung aussagt,
in der sie fest
gehalten wird.
Stefan (27) aber sagte
FÜR die Institutionen aus.
Die der JUGENDSELBSTHILFE
an den Kragen wollten
Deshalb darf er
ungestraft falsch beschuldigen.
Das ist der Unterschied
Deutscher „demokratischer“
Gerechtigkeitssprechung
Für menschenrechtlich
Aktive in Nürnberg
speziell, hahahah.
Wie gut, dass es doch
im Falle Stefan,
die objektive „Verifikation“
des so genannten
"geistigen
Behindertenbegriffes"
gibt
Stefan ist “objektiv“
„geistig behindert“? Hahaha.
Deshalb hat er auch keinerlei
Strafen für seine
Falschgaussagen zu erwarten
Nur eines möchten
wir schon gerne wissen:
hat Herr B ö h r i n g e r –
Kennen Sie ihn zufällig,
Herr Doktor ?-
das dem Stefan bei seiner
Vernehmung auch gesagt
oder fühlen lassen-
er brauche keine Angst
zu haben für seine
eigenen Delikte
(Fahrraddiebstähle u.a)
bestraft zu werden,
da er ja als
"objektiv behindert"
gelte oder ähnliches?
Oder gar ihm hoch
angerechnet werde,
wenn er „kooperiere?
Beweisen Sie mal, dass er
es FÜHLEN liess
können Sie das, Angeklagter?
Oder warum brauchte Stefan
keine Angst zu haben
und konnte
Herrn Böhringer ,
seinem „Duzfreund“,
„schon vertrauen“
Und munter loslegen
Konnte mit seinen
Falschbesachuldigungen,
die geeignet waren,
Existenzen und Leben zu zerstören
Wenn er durchgekommen wäre.?
Warum hat er denn gehofft,
im Falle seiner (falschen)
Aussagen
mit einer milden Strafe
in eigener Sache zu rechnen ?
Was würde denn passieren,
wenn so genannte "Laien"
ganz andere Personen,
zum Beispiel vernehmende
Beamte oder Professoren
Richter, Psychiater, Polizisten
in gewissem Sinne als "be-hindert"
oder gar
"nicht zurechnungsfähig"
oder als „gemein“
und „gefährlich“
bezeichnen würden?
Zum Beispiel in Sachen
Bekämpfung
der Jugendselbsthilfe
und ihrer Freunde?
Die Hölle wäre los.
Ein Beamten und
Professorenaufstand
würde losbrechen!
Denn nur "qualifizierte"
Menschen sind
dafür kompetent,
andere nicht Qualifizierte für
„nicht zurechnungsfähig“
zu erklären,
andersherum nicht.
Findet etwa deshalb
so mancher
Studiengang statt,
um nachher besser getarnt,
im Mäntelchen der
„Wissenschaftlichkeit“
und „Seriösität“einfache
Menschen fertig machen
zu können?
Da ist sie wieder,
die verlogene
Objektivitätsverliebtheit,
die hier
zur Disposition steht.
Warum sollte Sonjas
"Unglaubwürdigkeit"
gerichtlich dokumentiert
werden, wenn nicht
ihr späterer Hilferuf
aus der Clearingstelle
mit im Spiel wäre ?
Warum dann,
wenn dort alles
zum "Wohle
der Kinder " zugeht,
sehen sich die Eltern Sonjas
mit Kontakt-
und Besuchsverboten
konfrontiert, falls sie
an die Öffentlichkeit
gingen?
Lügen sie auch?
das geschlossene
Mädchenheim
München-Gauting
- Endstation der bayerischen
- Kinder- Gefängnislosigkeit
Sonja fühlt sich nun
sogar für den Fall der
(nicht?) Aufrechterhaltung
ihrer Aussagen
über ihre Behandlung
in der Clearing
von einer Einweisung
in das
noch gefürchtetere
geschlossene
Mädchenheim
Gauting bedroht
Aber das stimmt ja gar nicht,
könnte man dann sagen,
wenn man sie erst einmal
für unglaubwürdig erklärt hat,
sie wurde ja gar nicht
mit Gauting bedroht,
Sie lügt ja immer-
also fühlt sie auch falsch
wenn sie sich weiter
über die Zustände
in Regensburg
beschweren sollte.
Das hat sie also
nur gesagt,
weil sie eine
Lügnerin ist?
Deshalb musste das
Verfahren von Sonja,
wo es um ihre
Glaubwürdigkeit ging,
eine große Bedeutung haben.
Für die von ihr
behaupteten,
aber von den
Verantwortlichen
abgestrittenen
willensbrechenden
und anderen Gewalt-
Strukturen
in der Regensburger
Clearingstelle.
Dr. Schanda
schreibt ab
Dr.Schanda objektiv,
wie er ist und sich
keinesfalls über die
Folgen
seiner Behauptungen
bewusst oder etwa doch?
verbreitet neue
Unwahrheiten über die
Jugendselbsthilfe in
seinem
neuen „Gutachten“
über Sonja.
Um Abgrenzung zur
Jugendselbsthilfe
durch Mobilisierung von
Gefühlen
"christlich abendländischer"
Sexualmoral bei
christlichen Betroffenen
seines Objektivierungs-
"Gutachtenwohn –
Sinns" zu mobilisieren
oder warum?
Wir haben Wohnraum
für Aktivisten:
Die Psychiatrie auch
Dr. Schanda im Kampf
für seine Belegbetten
Zitate: aus dem
„Gutachten Dr. Schanda
über Sonja:
"Zudem habe sich
Sonja bei der Mutter
und bei Freunden
aus der "Jugendselbsthilfe"
Nürnberg aufgehalten.
Frage: Wieviel Minuten
Herr Doktor? 5 oder 6?
Zitat von uns im Gutachten
über Sonja von Dr.
Schanda zitiert" weil wir
flüchtende Kinder
nicht abweisen,
befinden wir uns
selbst in einer
"Grauzone" zwischen
"legalität" und
"Illegalität"
Dies ist unsere
Grundsituation.
Viele Kinder und
Jugendliche flüchten
lieber zu uns oder
verbringen ihre freie
Zeit mit uns,
als sich irgend
welchen "Sozialarbeitern"
anzuvertrauen.
Die Diskriminierung
oder Kriminalisierung
unserer Flüchtlingshilfe
kann das Vertrauen
in die so
genannten
"christlich abendländischen"
Grundwerte***
vollkommen erschüttern."
Kommentar:
*** Weniger bei uns
als bei bei Ihnen selbst,
Herr Dr. Schanda,
werden wohl die
"christlich abendländischen
Grundwerte der Bergpredigt"
nicht mehr so ganz
stimmen,
so wie es ausschaut.
Ps: bei Herrn Busch
auch nicht .
Und auch Herr Calvin
lässt grüssen.
Kapitalprofit als "Christlicher
Grundwert" christlich und
sozial halt!
Seitdem man offensichtlich
hier und da auch
schon mal einen Völkermord
im Namen "christlich
abendländischer
Grundwerte"
begehen darf,
fragen wir uns
wirklich ,
was hat dieses schöne
Zitat von uns. tatsächlich in Ihrem
"Gutachten" über Sonja
zu suchen?
Wie lang sind eigentlich
eigentlich die Wunden,
die sich Kinder und
Jugendliche in der
Clearingstelle Regensburg,
im Mädchenheim Gauting
und in Kinderpsychiatrien ritzen?
und jetzt legen Sie los,
als ob ein Kind
von der Jugendselbsthilfe
überfahren worden wäre
und deshalb Sonja
nicht mehr zur
Jugendselbsthilfe hin könne.
Das fehlt grad noch,
dass man ihr sowas
auch noch mitteilen würde.
Damit Sonja sich ja noch traut,
unsere Hilfe
in Anspruch zu nehmen
Oder hat das bereits
wirklich jemand zu ihr
gesagt?
Forts. Gutachtentext
„I n
d i e s e m
U m f e l d (! ) [der JSH]
war es auch
zu erneuten
Selbstverletzungen (Dr.Remold:
10-12 kleinere
Schnittwunden an Sonjas
Hand und 22 Schnittwunden
von je 4 cm
Länge am linken Unterarm,
siehe Bericht des ASD
vom 2.4.2007 an das
Familiengericht“ ***
gekommen
Kommentar
*** Kompletter Nonsense.
Herr Dr. Schanda
sie sprechen die Unwahrheit.
Und Sie schreiben ab
Pädagogen Psychologen
können Todes-Urteile
aussprechen,
wenn sie nur abschreiben
und so genannte
"Gutachten", anfertigen
der bösartigsten Art,
wie sie wollen,
wenn sie wollen,
Wenn man sich vorstellt,
solche Falschbeschuldigungen
und Urteile über psychische
Befindlichkeiten
können Menschen
ein ganzes Leben lang
eingespert halten,
in Abhängigkeit
eines Betreuers
beispielsweise
am lebendigen
Leibe verelenden
und dahin siechen lassen,
belasten und zugrunde richten.
und jetzt
Original Gutachtentext
...und (im Umfeld der JSH“)
war es auch zu
ungeschütztem
Geschlechtsverkehr
unter Alkoholeinfluss gekommen***
Kommentar
***das ist schon
nicht mehr Nonsense,
das ist nun wirklich bösartig.
Sagen Sie,
schreiben Sie immer ab?
Langsam fragen wir uns,
wie Sie überhaupt
Ihre Qualifikation
erworben haben
Sie, Herr Dr.Schanda,
müssten doch eigentlich
von Ihrer Ausbildung her
wissen,
daß Wissenschaft
vom Für und Wider
verschiedener Positionen
und dem Abwägen
dieser Positionen lebt.
Hätten Sie nicht
selber eine eigene
Recherche anstellen
müssen,
ob diese Angaben
des ASD
überhaupt stimmen?
Wer so schlechte
Arbeit für
teures Geld macht,
ist schlicht nur
ein Ab-Sahner!!!
Eigentlich
ein perfekter Rufmord,
was Sie da
über uns verbreiten
Eigentlich keine
kriminelle Handlung
so verlogen und
schwammig ist
das formuliert,
Stellen Sie sich einmal
vor, jemand würde
behaupten,
Sie Herr Schanda
haben hier
kriminell gehandelt
Zum Glück haben Sie
es ja nicht
aber viele denken
deshalb nur das eine:
Sonja hat
in der Jugendselbsthilfe
oder bei deren
Verbündeten
einen ungeschützten
Sexualverkehr
unter Alkoholeinfluss
„verbrochen“
# das passt
ins Klischee. #
Stimmt absolut nicht.
Kein cm davon ist wahr.
Wir nehmen an,
Sie Herr Dr. Schanda,
haben das
nur irgendwo
ins Gutachten
komplett hinein
abgeschrieben,
Wir haben früher
auch immer
abgeschrieben
Wenn wir eine
Prüfung machten.
Aber als Doktor tut man
so etwas natürlich nicht?
Sie sind doch
schliesslich ein Gutachter
Aber Ihre Gutachten
haben bösartige
verheerende Folgen
Ist es etwa nicht
ihre Aufgabe, heraus
zu finden, ob das,
was Sie unkritisch
von anderen übernehmen
und abschreiben
tatsächlich stimmt?
Damit niemand mehr,
der unsere Berichte liest,
und unsere Glaubwürdigkeit
auf dem Spiel steht,
denken solle,
„ach,das sind ja nur die“...
Deshalb werden wir
in Nürnberg
Belächelt und nicht angehört.
Und als Menschenrechtler
Kriminalisiert.
Genau deshalb
...damit wir zurückschrecken
sollten, Ihre haarsträubenden
„Diagnosen“ in der
Öffentlichkeit bekannt
zu machen.
Darum wurde
das geschrieben !
Oder kennen Sie
vielleicht
noch andere Fälle
gutachterlichen Abschreibens?
Meinten Sie vielleicht
die j ü n g e r e S c h w e s t e r
von Sonja,
die unter Aufsichtspflicht
des Reutersbrunnenheims
Nürnberg
mit einem etwas älteren
Jungen eine Affaire hatte ?
Eine völlig andere Person
an einem völlig anderen Ort
zu Lasten
der Jugendselbsthilfe!
Mal wieder
wie das Herr Dr. Wagner
bereits in einem
anderen Fall praktizierte
Diese Passage
zeigt deutlich,
dass Sie vor keiner
falschen Darstellung
zurückschrecken,
Herr Doktor !
Und schon werden
Sonjas Hilferufe über die
Zustände bei Ihnen
und in Ihrem „Umfeld“
immer glaubwürdiger!
Sollte das in Wahrheit
etwa auch für die
A n s c h u l d i g u n g
von
„Oppositionalität“
als Krankheit gelten?
Krankheitskatalog halt,
Nummer
F xy , Sie wissen schon...
abgeschrieben....
Gibts für Berufssparten
ausser für BERUFUNGEN
diese „Krankheits“- Listen
eigentlich auch schon?
Zum Beispiel
„Oppositionalist-muß“
psychiatrischer
Allmachtgefühle
gegen natürliche
freie Entfaltungen
von
Kinderselbstbestimmung?
Denn Sie können sich ja
Stets darauf „berufen“,
was Sie abgeschrieben
haben
was für ein Glück !
Was von anderen
stamme,
und „wissenschaftlich
gesichert“ sei
nicht von ihnen
Andere haben es
vorformuliert,
nicht Sie -
Sie schreiben
zuweilen lieber ab
Wir empfinden dies
aber als sehr gemein
und gefährlich.
Was sie mit Ihren
"GUT8en tun
und verbreiten,
Herr Doktor!
Wie viele Kinder haben denn Sie
so pro Jahr gut im Griff?
Wobei Sie natürlich
mit dem Be - Griff
"Umfeld der JSH"
alle Optionen
mit einbeziehen,
denn j e d e r MENSCH
gehört zum "Umfeld der JSH"
Auch Sie selbst
übrigreagensglas,
Herr Doktor
Wer weiss schon genau,
was so manche Ärzte
und andere Berufsgruppen
im Umfeld der JSH so alles tun ?
Es geht uns ja nichts an,
aber
haben Sie denn auch
schon mal
im „Umfeld“ der
Jugendselbsthilfe
Geschlechtsverkehr gehabt ?
Oder gar ungeschützt
und unter Alkoholeinfluss?
Mit anderen Worten:
bei den Formulierungen,
wie „UMFELD“
wäre die JSH
für alles verantwortlich
machbar,
was überhaupt passiert
auf der Welt
Schandarismus-Theorien
und die Folgen
für wehrlose Kinder!
und der Anschein
von Objektivität
mitten im Menschtrechtsfrass
von
Nürnbergs davon ablenkender
Kinderentrechtungssuppe
Mit Todesfolgen
und die „Wahrheit“
von Aufrichtigkeit der Nürnberger
Menschen-rechts-politik immer dabei...
„Scharlatanerieobjektivismus“
im Gewand
von "Wissenschaftlichkeit,"
an die die Leute
glauben sollen
wie der Schwanz
an seine Ratte
Deshalb gibt es hier
"Bildung" und Wissen“,
das auch in dieser Stadt
so viele Menschen schafft!"
Man kann Menschen
auch so weit treiben,
dass man
sie zu Tode schützt
oder
zu ihrem „Schutz“
irgend etwas behauptet,
zum Beispiel,
dass sie „krank“ seien,
was man nachher
dafür benutzen kann,
um sie in der Öffentlichkeit
unglaubwürdig
erscheinen zu lassen,
wenn sie mal etwas
berichten sollten.
Zum Beispiel über Sie.
Das macht sie krank.
Wenn Sie sie
für krank erklären und sie
es vielleicht gar nicht sind
Für den Fall muss man
sich jedoch absichern
dass die Kinder
eines Tages
anfangen könnten
über ihre TREIBER
auszupacken
und auszuspucken.
und gegen
grosse LEIBER
aufzumucken
mit GEIST
und SEELE.
Ungereinigt
...forderen wir Sie auf,
einmal mit uns öffentlich
zu diskutieren,
und freuen uns auf
Ihren Terminvorschlag
wie es sich denn
in diesem unseren
„Gesundheitswesen“
verhält
Ihrer Meinung nach
mit noch vielen anderen
„unkranken“ "Diagnosen,"
und was jetzt
nach diesem Artikel,
Herr Doktor,
davon noch
übrig geblieben ist
von Ihrer eigenen
"Objekt - tief - ität"
und warum dieses
für Kinder
selbst überhaupt nicht
nachvollziehbare
definitorische Getrixe
im Mäntelchen der
„Wissenschaftlichkeit“
immer noch ein sehr
hohes Ansehen geniesst
und Kinder in die
Rollen von
„erkrankten
Entwicklungsgestörten“
zwingt
Erwachsene,
die das aushecken,
aber nicht
und eine fast schon
religiöse Schein – heilige
und sektenmässige
Gaubensgemeinschaft
nach der anderen
mit einer hochbezahlten
Scharlatanlosigkeit
konstituiert,
die durch die Fülle
an Leere so genannter
„Psychologie“
in der Bevölkerung
verheerendes anrichtet
und heilig spricht
und so am liebsten
fast jede/n
die / der hier in
entschiedener Opposition
zu solchen Programmen
steht, folglich,
da diese dank
des „gesunden
Volksempfindens“
„Krankheit“ genannt
werden darf
und als dumpfdreiste
„Volkspsychologie“
einfach nicht
zum Aussterben
zu bringen ist,
natürlich
"behandlungswürdig"
sei,
Ihrer Meinung nach auch ?,
wenn man zukünftig
ganz allgemein an
verhaltensstörender
"Oppositionalität"
"erkrankt" wäre?
Das hätten Sie vielleicht
in einer anderen Zeit
durchbringen können
in Deutschland, Herr Doktor
Aber in dieser ??????
Wie wäre es,
Herr Dr.Schanda,
wenn wir uns
zum Beispiel
beim
Schandmaul –
Jubiläumskonzert
Konzert am 14.11.07
in München bei
einem Glas Apfelsaft
gemuetlich unterhalten?
Vielleicht sind Sie ja doch
nicht so,
wie Ihre „Gutachten“?
Aufgrund unserer sehr
unterschiedlichen
sozialen Lage, wären
wir Ihnen natürlich
dankbar,
wenn Sie uns
ausnahmsweise
die Fahrt und
Konzertkarte spenden.
Selbstverständlich
stehen wir
Ihnen dafür
auch in Nürnberg,
falls Sie einmal selbst
Probleme haben sollten,
zum Beispiel mit diesem Text
jederzeit zu
einem kostenlosen
Beratungsgespräch
zur Verfügung
Ihre Jugendselbsthilfe
Source: http://www.akkak.de/
Luisa Gomes to Eduardo Alexandre Pinto
Alex, amigo
Recebo os teus mails com muito agrado. Fico feliz por ver/saber que ao escreveres encontras equilibrio e és generoso ao partilhares os teus pensamentos e forma de escrita. Bem hajas!
Tenho andado um bocado fora de casa e só hoje vi que tentaste contactar-me, também ouvi a tua simpática mensagem. Tenho Skype, se quiseres utiliza-o pois o meu telefone fixo funciona muito mal. Andei a apanhar as azeitonas e envio-te umas fotos para veres como na minha aldeia se pode fazer tudo com muito amor.
Fica bem. Mereces ser feliz.
Beijinho
Luisa
Recebo os teus mails com muito agrado. Fico feliz por ver/saber que ao escreveres encontras equilibrio e és generoso ao partilhares os teus pensamentos e forma de escrita. Bem hajas!
Tenho andado um bocado fora de casa e só hoje vi que tentaste contactar-me, também ouvi a tua simpática mensagem. Tenho Skype, se quiseres utiliza-o pois o meu telefone fixo funciona muito mal. Andei a apanhar as azeitonas e envio-te umas fotos para veres como na minha aldeia se pode fazer tudo com muito amor.
Fica bem. Mereces ser feliz.
Beijinho
Luisa
Wednesday, December 02, 2009
The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust needs a hand
THE WILHELM REICH INFANT TRUST
DIRECTORS
Robert Dayton
Mary Henderson
Mary Boyd Higgins
Kevin Hinchey
THE
WILHELM
REICH
MUSEUM
Mary Boyd Higgins
Director
Kevin Hinchey
Associate Director
Mary Henderson
Administrative Asst.
Lee Henderson
Caretaker
ADVISORY
COMMITTEE
Kenneth J. Baker, D.O.
Rachel Rippy
James E. Strick, Ph.D.
Brian Warren
Richard J. Wolfe
DEVELOPMENT
COMMITTEE
Philip Bennett, Ph.D.
Co-Director
Andrew S. Kahn
Co-Director
Sasha Coviello
Wendy Kohli, Ph.D.
Amy Sabsowitz
David Silver
GENERAL
COUNSEL
Leonard Kolleeny
December 1, 2009
Dear Friend,
The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust needs a hand.
One such hand has been offered faithfully by someone dedicating his time and
support since 1985—first as a Friend of the Wilhelm Reich Museum—
investing countless hours to assist in the preservation of Reich’s legacy. And
since 2004 this individual has expanded his involvement with the Trust to
ensure its survivability in the 21st century.
This individual stands firm behind Reich’s directives in his Last Will and
Testament to “secure transmission to future generations of a vast empire
of scientific accomplishment” and “to safeguard the truth about my life and
work against distortion and slander,” directives that I have made every effort
to uphold during my tenure with the Trust.
The contributions of this individual include:
producing our biographical DVD Man’s Right to Know
writing our e-mail Updates
managing the development of the Access Policies & Procedures
for Reich’s archives
managing the compilation of the Index of Reich’s archives
organizing summer conferences and the 2008 Archive Workshop
speaking at events in Maine and New York
handling inquiries from the media
currently developing a full-length documentary film about Reich
I am speaking of Kevin Hinchey, a Board Member of the Wilhelm Reich Infant
Trust since 2002 and Associate Director of the Wilhelm Reich Museum since
2004.
Kevin’s efforts over the past 25 years have helped us in ways we could not
have imagined. And all the while he has offered himself consistently without
receiving any compensation.
Orgonon, Box 687, Rangeley, ME 04970 TEL: 207-864-3443 FAX:
DIRECTORS
Robert Dayton
Mary Henderson
Mary Boyd Higgins
Kevin Hinchey
THE
WILHELM
REICH
MUSEUM
Mary Boyd Higgins
Director
Kevin Hinchey
Associate Director
Mary Henderson
Administrative Asst.
Lee Henderson
Caretaker
ADVISORY
COMMITTEE
Kenneth J. Baker, D.O.
Rachel Rippy
James E. Strick, Ph.D.
Brian Warren
Richard J. Wolfe
DEVELOPMENT
COMMITTEE
Philip Bennett, Ph.D.
Co-Director
Andrew S. Kahn
Co-Director
Sasha Coviello
Wendy Kohli, Ph.D.
Amy Sabsowitz
David Silver
GENERAL
COUNSEL
Leonard Kolleeny
December 1, 2009
Dear Friend,
The Wilhelm Reich Infant Trust needs a hand.
One such hand has been offered faithfully by someone dedicating his time and
support since 1985—first as a Friend of the Wilhelm Reich Museum—
investing countless hours to assist in the preservation of Reich’s legacy. And
since 2004 this individual has expanded his involvement with the Trust to
ensure its survivability in the 21st century.
This individual stands firm behind Reich’s directives in his Last Will and
Testament to “secure transmission to future generations of a vast empire
of scientific accomplishment” and “to safeguard the truth about my life and
work against distortion and slander,” directives that I have made every effort
to uphold during my tenure with the Trust.
The contributions of this individual include:
producing our biographical DVD Man’s Right to Know
writing our e-mail Updates
managing the development of the Access Policies & Procedures
for Reich’s archives
managing the compilation of the Index of Reich’s archives
organizing summer conferences and the 2008 Archive Workshop
speaking at events in Maine and New York
handling inquiries from the media
currently developing a full-length documentary film about Reich
I am speaking of Kevin Hinchey, a Board Member of the Wilhelm Reich Infant
Trust since 2002 and Associate Director of the Wilhelm Reich Museum since
2004.
Kevin’s efforts over the past 25 years have helped us in ways we could not
have imagined. And all the while he has offered himself consistently without
receiving any compensation.
Orgonon, Box 687, Rangeley, ME 04970 TEL: 207-864-3443 FAX: